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'•IVERSITY LIBRARY,

•OLD. >%iV>

THE PENNIMAN MEMORIAL LIBRARY OF EDUCATION

OF BROWN UNIVERSITY

ESTABLISHED BY JAMES HOSMER PENNIMAN, YALE 181

IN MEMORY OF HIS PARENTS

MARIA DAVIS HOSMER

JAMES LANMAN PENNIMAN, YALE 1863

GRANDSON OF CHIRON PENNIMAN, BROWN 1791

GREAT-GRANDSON OF ELIAS PENNIMAN, BROWN 177-

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GEOGRAPHY MADE EASY

ABRIDGEMENT

American Universal Geography,

TO WHICH ARE PREFIXED

ELEMENTS OF GEOGRAPHY.

FOR THE USE OF SCHOOLS AND ACADEMIES IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA.

BY JEDIDIAH MORSE, D. D.

ADTUOB, OF THE AMERICAN UNIVERSAL GEOGRAPHY AND THl AMERICAN GAZETTEER.

There is not a son or daughter of Adam, but has some concern both in Geography and Astronomy. '^° "'

Illustrated with a map oi

MAP OF KORTH-A

©irteetttf) ©Di

AN'D FOURTH OF THIS NEW

, . BOSTON :

PUHLISHED BY THOMAS & AK6REWS. . BOLD AT THKIR I!U«K3T0RE, NO 4,5 NEWKLRY-STREFT ; BY EAST' BURN, KIRK, AND CO. NEW-YORK, M CAREY, rHILADELPHIA ; AND BT TUB PRINCIPAL BOOKSELLERS IN THE UNlTiO STATES.

J. r. BVt.KiyiiHAHL, tRimMK,

Oct. 181 S.

•^^pHB^j^r

DISTRICT OF MASSACHUSETTS, to wit :

BE IT REMEM BERED, that on the twentieth day ef April, m the thirty-third year of the Independence of the United States of America , Jedidiah Morse of the said District, has deposited in this Office the Title of a Book, the right whereof he claims as Author, in the words following, to -wit :

'< Geography made easy : being an Abridgement of the American Universal Geography. To wliich are prcfijed Elements of Geogra- phy. For the use of Schools and Academies in the United States of America. Bv Jedidiah Morse, D. D. author of the American Univer- sal Geography, and the American Gazetteer. ' There is not a son or daughter of Adam, but has some concern both in Geography and Astronomy.' — Dr. Watts. Illustrated with a Map of the M'orld, and a iMap of North- America."

In conformity to the act of the Congress of the United States, en- titled, " An Act for the Encouragement of Learning, by securing the copies of I^taps, Charts and Books, to the Authors and Proprietors of r,ucii copies, during the times therein mentioned:" and also to an Act, intlfled, " An Act suppkmentary to an Act, entitlwl. An Act for the Eiic( uragement of Learning, liy securing the copies of Maps, Charts, nuo Books, to the Authors and Proprietor- of such copies, during the times therein mentioned ; and extencinp th.e benefits thereof to the arts of Dtsi"ning, Engra7ingand Etching Historical and other Prints."

WILLIAM. S. SHAW, Ckrk cf iht Diitricf of Liatsaclmttt:,

PREFACE.

NO national government holds out to its subjects jo many al- luring motives to obtain an accurate knowledge of their own country, and of its various interests, as that of United Ameri- ca. By the freedom of our elections, public honors and public offices are not confined to any one class of men, but are offered to merit, in whatever rank it may be found. To discharge the duties of public office with honor and applause, the history, policy, commerce, productions, particular advantages and inter- ests of the several states ought to be thoroughly understood. It is obviously wise and prudent, then, to imtiate our youth into the knowledge of these thing?, and thus to form their minds upon correct principles, and prepare them for future usefulness and honor. There is no science better adapted to the capacities of youth, and more apt to captivate their attention than Geog- raphy. An acquaintance with this science, more than with any other, satisfies that pertinent curiosity, wliich is the predominat-- ing feature of the youthful mind. It is to be lamented that this part of education has been so long neglected in America. Our young ra^n, UiiiversaUy, have been much better acquainted v^rJi the geog: loiiy of Europe and Asia, than with that of their own state and country. The v/art of suitable books has been the cause, we hoj-e the sole cause, of this shameful defect in our ed- ucation. Until within a few years, we have seldom pretended to write, and hardly to think for ourselves. We have humbly rec d from Great-Britain our Ja'^s our Eianners, our books, and our modes of thinking ; and our youth have been educated rather as the subjects of the British king, than as the citizens of a free and independent nation. But the scene is now changed. The revolution has beeiT,favorable to science in general ; par- ticularly to that of the geograpiiy of our own country.

In the following pages, the Author has endeavored to bring this valuable branch of knov/ledge home to common schools, and to the cottage fire-side, by comprising, in a small and cheap volume; the most entertaining and interesting part of his Ameri-

Au3x94

iv PREFACE.

can Universal Geography. He has endeavored to accommodate it to the use ofschocL', as a reading book, that our youth of both sexes, at the same time thai; they are learning to read, might im- bibe an acquaintance with their country, and an attachment to its interests; and, in that forming period of their lives, begin to qualify themselves to act their several parts in life, with reputa- tion to themselves, and with usefulness to th^ir country.

That the labors of the Author may be a benefit to the youth of that country which he loves, and which he has sedulously ex* plored, is his moit ardent wish.

Nutv-Haveny 1789.

Postscript. In consequence of the numerous changes, which have taken place in the world, since this AbiiJgement wa first made, {oi \yh\ch.t\\\sisx.h(i fitirtiL'r]th edition) the Author has thought it expedient, for the purpose of introducing the im- • provements in the last editions of his Universi! Geography and Gazetteer to abridge them anew ; wnich has been done, uraer his direction and inspection by another hand. The work is DOW presented to the Public, in an improved and more inviting form, and the changes which have taken place in the world, in this eventful period, have been noticed down to the present year. Char lis io'vjn, ■'ipri/, 181 1,

CONTENT&.

	Page.
ELEMENTS OF GEOGRAPHY	9
Definitions	9
History of Geography and Astronomy	9
The Solar System	13
Comets	18
Fi-xed Stars	18
Eclipses « • -	19
Doctrine of the Sphere'	20
The Globes	23
Problems	25
Maps	29
Natural Divisions of the Earth's surface	30
Component parts of the Earth	31
Volcanoes	32
Earthquakes	33
Magnetism	34.
Gravitation	34
Tides	35
The Atmosphere	36
Winds	36
Vapors and Clouds	39
Electricity	39
Light	40
The Harvest Moon	41
Northern Light	41
Heat and Cold	42
Political Divisions of the Earth	43
Inhabitants	44}
Forms of Government	45
Religions	46
Of the Divisions of TIrae	48
Measures	50
Of the Log Line	51
AMERICA	5$
North-America	62
Aboriginal America Greenland	68
69
Labrador and Hudson Fay	71
A ^

vi CONTENTS.

Page

Interior Countries 73

Northwest Coast 75

Northern Archipelago 76

British America 77

Upper Canada 77

Lower Canada 86

Island of Cape Breton 82

New-Brunswick 83

Nova-Scotia S-i

Island of St. John's 86

Newfoundland Island 86

The Bermudas or Sommers's Islands 87

The United States 88

District of Maine 115

New- Hampshire 118

Vermont 123

Massachusetts 126

Rhode-Island 136

Connecticut 140

New- York 146

New-Jersey 1 57

Delaware. 162

Pennsylvania 165

Ohio 172 Michigan Territory ' 176

Indiana Territory 178

Illinois Territory 179

Maryland 180

Columbia Territory 183

Virginia ~ ' 185

Kentucky 192

-Tennessee 195

North-Carolina 199-

South Carolina ,204

Georgia 209

Missisippi Territory 213

Louisiana 215^

Spanish America 217

Florida 218

Mexico 219

Fouth-Amfrica 223

CONTENTS,	"vH
	Page
Peru	228
Chili-	230
Buenos Ayres	231
Guiana	232
Brazil	235
Amazonia	237
Patagonia	238
South-American Islands	23^
West-Indies	241
The Bahama Isles	24.2
The Antilles	24*
The Virgin Isles	246
The Caribbees	246
EUROPE	247
Lapland	250
Denmark	25 i
Sweden	255
Russia	258
Poland	26 S
Prussia	264
Germany	267
Principal States of Germaji/	268
Austria	27»
Austrian Dominions	275
Great- Britain	277
England	278
Wales	281
Scotland	282
Ireland	28S
Smaller British Isles	285
France	285
Netherlands	288
Holland	291
Switzerland	294
Spain	295
Portugal	299
Italy	302
Mediterranean Islands .	307
Turkey	309
Islands belonging to the Turilih ^inpirc	SI 2

^m CONTENTS.

ASIA 3^

Turkey 3iy

Asiatic Russia , 322

Tartary ' 323

China 325

Thibet 32«

Hindoostan 350

India beyond the Ganges 331

Assam 331

The Birman Empire 332

Siam 333

Malacca 333

Liaos 33^

Cambodia 33^

Cochin China 334,

Persia

334

Arabia 335

Japan 33Y

Oriental Islands 333.

AFRICA 340

Egypt 34^

Nubia, Dar-Foor 344

Abyssinia, and the Eastern Coast 345.

Southern and Western Coasts 345.

States of Barbary 34^

Morocco 34y

Algiers 34^

J""^V 350

Tnpoh 35,

iJarca 3^3

African Islands 353

Islands of the Pacific Ocean 357

Austral Asia 3^7

Polynesia 358

ELEMENTS OF GEOGRAPHY,

DEFINITIONS,

GEOGRAPHY is a Science, which describes the fig^ ure, uiotioti, ma.^nitiide, and coniponcnl parts of the earth ; the siiua'.iuns, extent, and appearances of the various parts of its surface ; its productions, animal and vegetable ; its natural and political divisions ; and the history, manners, customs, and religion of its inhabit mts.

The Science, winch treats of the heavenly bodies, and exnlainS their motions, magnitudes, periods, and distances, is c died astronomy:

1 rese two Sciences are so intimately connected, that a con, pete nt knowledge of Gcograpliy is unatl'-dnablej witliout some previous acquaintance with Astronomy.

We shall commence this work with the following brief historical account of the origin, progress, and improve- ment of Geography and Astronomy.

HISTORY OF GEOGRAPHY AND ASTRONOJilY.

Geography, like every other science, at its beginning was very imperfect, and arrived at its present improved^ though far from perfect state, by slow advances. The early geographeis, being destitute of mathematical instru- ments, and unable to make asiroiiomical observations, be- gan first to determine the situation of places, according to climates ; which they fixed from the form and color of the people and animals, which were to be found in'those different countries. The appearance of negroes, and of the large animals, such as the rhinoceros, and the ele- phant, suggested to them where to fix th,3 limits of the torrid or burning zone. For reason, said they, points out to usj that similar animals and plants appear in the sanje

10 ELEMENTS OF GEOGRAPHY. \

temperature of the elements, and are produced according \ to the similar state of the air or climate vmder the same \ parallels, or a like situation equally distant from either I pole. This was the first rude outline of GeograpJiy. 1

The Babylonians and Egyptians soon after adopted j the method of determining thesituationsof places, or their | distance from the equator, by observing the length of their ' longest and shortcut day, which they determined by means of a kind oi sioi-dial, called & gnomon. All the places, for instance, where the longest day was just fourteen hours, or wliere the shortest day was ten hours, ■yrerc, of course, at the same distance from the equator.

Astronomy, as a science, was first cultivated by the Egyptians, Phenicians, and Chaldeans. From them the Greeks derived their knowledge of this science.

The first of the Greeks, who laid the foundation of As- tronomy, was Thalks, born at Miietus, 641 years before Christ. He explained the cause of eclipses, and predict- ed one. He taught that the earth was round, which be- fore had been considered as an extensive plane, while the sun and stars mtived round it. He divided the earth into five zones, discovered the solstices and equinoxes, and divided the year into 36.^ days. He travelled into Egypt, in quest of knowledge, and measured the height of the pyriimids.

Pythagoras, the scholar of Thales, taught publicly the doctrir;e, common in his time, ihat the earth was the centre cf the universe j but to Ms scholars, he communi- , cated his real opinions, which weie similar to those since adopted by Copernicus ; that the earth and all the planets move round the sun as their centre ; which doctrine he ia supposed to have derived from the astronomers of India.

Philoi.aus, the scliolar of Pytliagoras, and Archytas of Taientum, according to a passage in the works of Cic- ero, first taught publicly the diuriial or daily motion of the earth, and its annual or yearly motion round the sun. This passage is said to have suggested to Copernicus the first idea of that system which he established.

Democritus was the first who taught that the milhj •way is occasioned by the confused light of an infinity of stars, which ^ the doctri^!(' -.tiH maintained by the best of philosophers. Plato, and Aristotle and Eudoxvs, the

ELEMENTS OF GEOGRAPHY. n

scholars of Plato, contributed much to the improvement of Astronomy.

But the greatest improvements in this science were made in the famous astronomical school of Alexandria, founded by Ptolemy Philadelphus, about 320 years before Christ. The first in this school, who distinguished them- selves, were Timocharis and Aristillus, who intro- duced the manner of determining the positions of ihe stars, according to their longitudes and Latitudes^ taken with re- spect to the equator. This led Hipparchus, afterwardsj by an easy transition of thought, to divide the cartii by lines of latitude and longitude, in the same manner as 'I'i- mocharis and Aristillus had the heavens, lienci., uth great justice, he is universally allowed to have fixcci le first solid foundation of Geography, by uniting it to As- tronomy, and so rendering its principles solf-tvident and invariable. This most illustrious astronomer flpuiisiicd between i6vO and 125 years before Chi-ist.

The celebrated Eratosthenes, authou of the Armitla' ry S/iherej who first deterinhied wiili exactness, the cir- cumference of the earth, by nieabUiing a degree of the •meridian, and discovering tlie true distance of t!ic sun and moon ftom the earth, flourished 100 years before Hippar- chus. In a valuable map, wiiich he constructed, he first introduced a regular ^mrallel of latitude.

Among the Romans, Julius Caesar, by his reforma- tion of the Roman Calendar, and by his knowledge of the principles of As.rouomy, contributed more than any oth- er person of tluu nation, to the advancement of Astronomy.

The last illustrious Astronomer and Geographer uf the Alexandrian school, was Ptolemy, born at Ptolemais, iit ]:lgypt. He flourished uiuler Adrian and the Antonines. He supposed the cart!-, to be in tiie centre of the system, Mid the heavenly bodies to move r(;und it.

In respect to Maps, those on record before the time of Hi}\fiarchuH^ except the single map of /:ra/?).vMi?ncs, before mentioned, wcic little mote than rude otitlines and topo- grap'.iical sketches of difi'ercnl countiies.

The earliest maps were those of 6V«o,<t/m, an Egyptian king, who, having traversal a great nait of the earth, re- corded his marches in maps, and ga^'c copies of them, not

t ELEMENTS OV GEOGRAPHY.

' ft

only to the Egyptians, but to the Scythians, to their gf eit astonishment.

The first Grecian map, was that of Anaximander, sup- posed to have been a general map of the then known world, and styled by Hipparchus, the ancient map.

Aristagoras, of Miletus, constructed a map of thfc Mediterranean sea, and its coasts, and more particularly of the lesser Asiay extending to the middle of Persia. It contained one straight line called the Royal Highway^ taking in all the stations or places of encampment, 1 1 1 in number, from Sardis to Susa, a distance of 1635 miles ; so that it was little more than anjtinerary or a sort oi directo- ry to armies and travellers. These itinerary maps were indispensable in all armies ; and from those which Alex- ander caused to be made, with great care, for the use of his army in their various and extensive marches, the sci- ence of Geography received most important advantages, rikI from this period, assumed anew face and form.

War, in ancitni times, Was made subservient to the ad- vancement of geogl^aphical knowledge. Every new war produced a iieiv survey and itinerary of the countiies, which were the scenes of action. The Romans, some time before the Christian era, became the conguirors, and consequently the surveyors, of a great part of the then in- habited woild. Materials for G^ograpliy were accurriu- lated by every addilional conquest. Julius Caesar order- ed a general survey to be viade of all the Jioman ILmJiire^ by a decree of the senate ; the surveyors are said to have been men of great wisdom, and instructed in every branch of phih^sopiiy.

The Romar empire had been enlarged lo its greatest extent, and all its piovinces well known and surveyed, when Ptoiemy, in tin; days of Antoninus Puis, t.bout 150 years befoi e Christ, composed his system of Gt o« i uj.liy ; v«l;i(h, thou,^li full of mistakes and errors, aiibii: .- necjs- sarilj from tl;e inrancy of the science and the ignorance of tlic age in which he lived, coutinued to be the only book of note and aulhorify on ihio science, till the brgiiiniiig of the 17th century. For v/hcn science began to revive in Europe, after llie Rf-J-.nnati'juhy Lu'' mku ai.d CALViN,a!id the inveiition of printing by Dr Paust, in 14 44, it was some time before the asirenon^' ; s oi iliat age were able to

ELEMENTS OF GEOGRAPHY. 13

obtalit copies of Ptolemy's Geography ; and even then, it was with difficulty they could read and clear his manu- scripts of some of their grossest errors. It required a still longer time before they could construct proper instru- ments for determining, with accuracy, the latitudes and longitudes of places.

It was not till Copernicus, Tycho Brahe, of Den- mark, born in 1546, Kepler, of Germany, born in 1571, Gallilho, of Italy, born in 1564, Descartes, of France, born in 1596, Cassini of Nice, Flamstead, Halley, and Sir Isaac Newton, of England, had enlightened the world with their discoveries, that Astronomy and Geography- were placed on their true foundation, and reduced to a folerable degree of consistency and accuracy.

THE SOLAR SYSTEM.

The stpposition of a certain disposition of the heavenly- bodies, and the planetary orbits, is called a Systetn of the World. The true System, or disposition of the planets, is called the Solar System. It is also called the Copernican System, from Copernictis, a Prussian. Several other sys- tems, as the Ptolemaic., and Tychonic^ have, at different times, been promulgated to the world ; but are now universally- exploded. The, true solar system was taught by Pythag- oras, 500 years ^before Christ ; but the knowledge of it was nearly lost, when Copernicus revived it, in 15.'^0.

This system supposes the sun to be in the centre, and the well known planets to revolve round him in the follow- ing order : Mercury, Venus, Earthy Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Herschel.

The two first of these are called inferior planets, because they are nearer to the common centre of gravity of the svs- lem, than the earth, or are below the earth, with respect't© that centre ; the other four are called superior, because, with respect to said centre, they are above the earth. Also the inferior planets are called interior, because their orbits are within that of the eartJi ; and tl:e superior are called exterior, because their orbits are without the same.

. These seven are called primary planets, to distinguish thesj from a numbeV ef othtr bodies;, called secondary planets* B

14 ELEMENTS OF GEOGRAPHY.

moonSi or satellites, which revolve about their respective pri- maries, and also accompany them in their revolutions about the sun.

The Orlit of a planet is that path vphich it describes in moving round the sun. The planetary orbits are not per- fectly circular, but elliptical or ovals so that all the planets sometimes approach nearer to, and at other times recede farther from the sun, than if they moved round him ki perfect circles. This deviation from a circle is called the eccentricity of the orlit.

The planets are retained in their orbits by the attraction of the sun ; and at the same time, are kept from approach- ing him, by a constant tendency to fly off from him in straight lines. This attractive power is called the centripe- tal force ; and that which impels them forward in straight lines, the centrifugal force.

A body is said to be in conjunction with the sun when it is seen in the same point of the heavens ; and in opposition, when it is 1 80 degrees distant : or, in other words, when it is in that part of the heavens directly opposite to the *un.

The SUN is the most glorious luminary ofthe heavens, and the fountain of light and heat to the planets. It is sup- posed to be an immense globe of fire, whose diameter is 883,246 miles, and whose body is more than 1,380,000 times larger than the 'earth. It has bee^j discovered that the sun has a revolution on its axis once in 25 days, 14 hoursj 8 minutes.

MERCURY is the nearest planet to the san, and re- volves round it in 87 days, 23 hours, at the mean distance of 36,.'383,835 miles. Its diameter is 3224. miles. It moves in its orbit at the rate of 111,000 miles in an hour. Its magnitude is about one twenty-seventh part of that of our earth. When visible to the naked eye, this planet emits a very clear, white light ; but from its nearness to the sun, it is seldom seen, and then only for a short time.

VENUS, the next planet in the system, is placed at the mean distance of 68,368,000 miles from the sun's centre. Its diameter is 7687 miles, and its magnitude about nine tenths of that of the earth. Moving at the rate of 81,000 miles an hour, its annual circuit round the sun is performed in 224 days/ 17 hours.

ELEMENTS OF GEOGRAPHY. 15

When Venus appears west of the sun, it rises before it, and is denominated the morning star ; when it appears east from the sun, it is seen above the horizon after sunset, and is then called the evening star*

The EARTH is the third planet in the solar system. Its distance from the sun is about 94-,507,4'28 miles ; its diameter TDiS, and its circumference 25,000 miles. The Earth, as well as all the other planets, has two motions ; one round its axis, in 24; hours, from west to east, which causes an a//arc'n/ motion of the heavenly bodies from east to west, and a continual succession of day and night. This is called its diurnal motion ; and by this, the inhabitants on the equator are carried 1043 miles every hour. The other is its annual revolution round the sun, which is performed in one year, fer 365 days, .0 hours, 4-8 minutes, 48 seconds. In its annual course, the earth moves at the rate of 75,222 miles an hour ; which motion causes the difference in the length of the days and nights, and the agreeable succession of the seasons.

The Earth has one satellite, the Moon, which revolves in an elliptical orbit round the earth, at the mean distance of 239,029 miles from the earth's centre. The Moon has also a rotation on its axis, the time of which is equal to the time of its Evolution round the earth, that is, 27 days, 7 hours, 43 minutes. The time of its synodic revolution, or that which elapses between two successive changes, is 30 days, 12 hours, 44 minutes. The diameter of the Moon is 2180 miles.

The Moon is an opaque body, like all the planets, and shines only by reflecting the light of the sun. Hence the incessant variation of its appearance ; for, when it is in conjunction with the sun, its whole surface turned toward the Earth being dark, it is invisible to us ; and this is called the new moon. As it advances forward, we see its enlight- ened side, like a radiant crescent, which increases morf and more to our view, till it is in opposition to the sun. Its whole enlightened side being then turned toward the earth, it appears as a round illuminated orb, which is called the full moon. From the full moon it appears to decrease gradually, till its next conjunction v/ith the sun, whea \\ disappears, as before.

16 ELEMENTS OF GEOGRAPHY.

MARS, the next planet above the orbit of the earth, is 144,000,000 miles distant from the sun. It appears of a fiery reddish hue, and is supposed to be encompassed with a thick cloudy atmosphere. Its diameter is about 4, 1 89 miles, and its magnitude, as 7 to 24 to that of the earth. It moves round the sun with a velocity of 50,000 miles ap. hour, apd completes its year in 687 days, of our time ; vhich makes only 6'67| of its own days, its diurnal notation being performed in 24 hours, 40 minutes. To a spectator ^n this planet, Mercury would be seldom, if ever, visible } Venus would appear about the same distance from the sun, as Mercury does to us ; our earth would appear about the size of Venus ; and would be, as Venus is to us, alteroate- ly a morning and an evening star.

JUPITER, the largest of all the planets, is the next in order, and is 491,702,^01 miles from the sun. Its diame- ter is about 89,170 miles ; and its magnitude nearly J400 limes greater than that of our earth. It completes its an- nual revouuion in 4322 days of our time. Its rotation a- bout its axis is j;erformed in 9 hours, 5.5 minutes, so that its year consists of 1] years 315 days of our time; and the inhabitants on its equator are carried 30,000 miles an hour, besides their motion round the «un.

Jupiter is surrounded by faint substances, called Belfs, in which £0 many variations appear, that they are general- ly ascribed to clouds. This planet has also four Moons, or SateU'tifs, revolving round it at various distances and peri- ods These satellites must afford a pleasing spectacle to the inhabitants of Jupiter ; they sometimes rise altogether, and at other times are altogether on the meridian, ranged under jDnc another. That which is most distant from the planet will appear as large as our moon does to us ; and from the various revolutions of the four, they produce four different kinds of months.

SASTURN is still higher than Jupiter, and, until the year 17BI, w-as supposed to be the most remote planet in cur system. This planet is placed at the distance ©f 901,668,908 miles from the sun's centre; and travelling ii2,100 miles an hour, finishes its annual circuit in 10,759 Uays of our time. Its diameter is 79,042 miles j and, con-

ELEMENTS Of GEOCJRAPHV. If

^fequently, this planet is near 1000 times as large as that which we inhabit.

Saturn is surrounded by a thin broad Ring, calculated to be 21,000 miles in breadth, and about that distance from its body on one side. This ring appears like a luminous arch in the heavens. Dr. Herschel lately discovered that it has a rotation on its axis, the time of which is about 10 hours, 32 minutes;

Besides the light which Saturn receives from the sun, and the reflection of the ring, it has the light of seven Satellites /- which revolv^e round it, at diflFerent distances.

HERSCHEL. On the evening of the 30th of March, 1781, Dr. Herschel discovered in the vast regions of space, and far beyond the orbit of Saturn, a planet, revolving a- bout the sun, which had probably never before been seen by mortal eyes. On account of its immense distance, it is but just visible to the naked eye. It is computed to be l,803,534-,392 miles from the sun ; and although it travels^ ^at Che rate of 15,000 miles an hour, it takes up 83 years, 150 days, 18 hours, of our time, to complete its annual revolution. Its diameter is 35,112- miles ; consequentlyj ■ it is about 90 times larger than our earth. It has a rota- tion on its axis, the time of which is not known.

In England, this planet has been called Georgium SiDtrs, in honor of the king in whose reign it was discov- ered ; but in the rest of Europe, Uranius, and in Americaj it is more jnstly denominated Herschel, in honor of its learned discoverer.

Six satellites have been discovered, revolving about Her- schel ; and it is not improbable that there are others, which have not yet been observed.

Besides the seven tuell knoivn planets, above described,

since the commencement oi" the present century, ybwr others

have been discovered, denominated Asteroids ; two by M«

Pioxzi and Dr. Gibers, named CERES and PALLAS j

one by Mr. Harding, near Bremen, which he called .lUNO ;

the other by Olbers, named VESTA. The orbits of the

two former are between those of Mars and Jupiter, and

their annual revolutions about the sun are performed in a.

bout 4 years, 7 months, and 10 days. Juno is represented

as similar to Ceres in height and apparent ma€;jiitudei B2- fe - i>

18 ELEMENTS OF GEOGRAPHY.

The periodical revolution of Vesta is 3 years, 2 months^ and 5 days, and its distance from the sun 206,596,000 miles. These late discoveries indicate that there are probably other planets belonging to the Solar System, which have yet escaped the most discerning eyes of Astronomers.

COJJI^TS.

Beside the planets, there are other bodies belonging to- the solar system, v^^hich have more irregular motionsr These are the Comets, which, descending from the far distant parts of the system, with inconceivable velocity, appear te us sometimes bright and round, like the planet Jupiter ; sometimes with a transparent, fiery tail, projecting from the part opposite to the sun ; 'and sometimes emitting, beams on all sides like hair. They approach much nearer to the sun than any of the planets ; and after a short stay, fly off again with equal rapidity, and disappear. Their or- bits are more elliptical than those of the planets, and their bodies of much greater density than the earth ; for some of them are heated to sucl> a degree as would vitrify or dissipate any substance known to us. Sir Isaac Newton computed the heat of the comet, which appeared in 1680, when nearest the sun, to be 2000 times greater than that of red hot iron.

The number, magnitudes, and motions of the comets, be- longing to our system, are very imperfectly known. Con- jecture has limited them to 450. The elements of 97 have been imperfectly determined. The periods of only three have been ascertained. They are found to return at inter- vals of 75, 129, and 575 years.

THE FIXED STARS

Are those heavenly bodies, \ hich, at all times, preserve the same situation with regard to each other. Though they form no part of the solar system, yet they must be considered here, as they are of great use in the practice of geography. To facilitate their computations, astrono-

£LEMEHTS OF GEOGRAI>HY. W

mefs consider these stars as all equally distant from our sun, and forming the concave surface of a sphere inclosing^ our system. They are distinguished from the planets by their twinkling.

A number of stars, which appear to lie in the neighbor- hood of each other, are called a Constellation. These are 90 in number, and are called by the name of some animal, or other object, whose figure the outline of the constellation is supposed to represent. Some stars are not included in any- of the constellations, and are denominated unformed stars.

According to their diflferent apparent magnitudes, they are called stars of ihejirjtf second, third, fourth, fifth, or sixth magnitudes.

Tiie Galaxy, or Milky Way, is a broad circle, encom* passing the heavens, which appears to consist of innumera- ble stars, forming one continued dense cluster, and by theif blended rays, diffusing a whiteness over that part of the firmament.

The number of stars is unknown ; La Land estimates them at 75,000,000 ; but this is supposed to fall far short cf their real number ; and we have reason to suppose, that those which are visible bear no comparison in number ta those that are invisible. They increase in our view, as the telescope approximates to perfection.

With respect to the distances of the fixed stars, they are so extremely remote, that nothing in the planetary system can compare with them. Though the diameter of the earth's orbit be not less than 190,000,000 ©f miles ; yet this immense space makes not the smallest difference in their appearance ; for they seem to be as large, when view- ed from the farthest, as from the nearest point of the earth's orbit. Their distance is too great for human beings to conceive, and gives rise to the pleasing and sublime con- jecture, that each of the fixed stars is a sun, illuminating a complete system of planets, which i evolve about it as their centre.

An Eclipse is a total or partial privation of the the sun or moon.

n ELEMENTS OF GEOGRAMV.

An eclipse of the moon is caused by its entering Into the earth's shadow ; and consequently, it must happen at the/ul/ moon, or when it is opposite to the sun.

An eclipse of the sun is caused by the interposition of the m.oon between the earth and sun, and, of course, must happen when the moon is in conjunction with the sun, or at the ne'u/ moon.

The diameters of the sun and itioon are supposed to be divided into 12 equal parts, called digits ;' and an eclipse is said to be so many digits, according to the number of those parts which are involved in the greatest darkness*

DOCTRINE OF THE SPHERE. Principles.

The fundaiftental principles of Geography are, the spher= ''*'^i<ral figure of the earth ; its rotation on its axis ; the posi- tion of its axis, with regard to- the celestial luminaries j and its revolution round the sun.

That the figure of the earth is spherical, is evident. 3. Because such a figure is best adapted to motion. 2. From analogy i all the other planets are spherieal. 3. From t4ie a ppearance of its shadow, in eclipses of the moonj ■which is always circular. 4. From its having been several times circumnavigated. It is not, however, a perfect sphere, but an oblate spheroldy depressed or flattened at the poles, and elevated at the equator. Its diameter from east to west, is reckoned to be about 34 miles longer than that from north to south;

DiriNlTlONS.

A 5/i/r^ literally signifies a ball or globe. The appar^ ffnt concave orb, which invests the earth, and in which all the heavenly bodies appear to be situated, at equal distances from the eye, is calledah^ C^eUstial Sp^re.

In Geography, the^rcles which the sun appears to •kscribe on the coccave surface of the celestial sphere, are

ELEMENTS Q^ GEOGRAPHY.

31

sapposed to be extended t^^the earth, and marked on its surface. Each circle is divTded into S60 equal parts, call- ed degreft ; each degree is decided into 60 minutes t and eack minute into 60 secondi.

The circles, supposed by geographers to be described on the sphere, are denominated great and small circles. GyecU circles divide either the celestial or terrestrial, sphere, into two equal parts. Small circles divide the sphere into two unequal parts.

An imaginary line passing through the centre of the earth, from north to south, and on which its diurnal rota- tion is performed, is called the Axis of the earth. The ei» treme points of the axis are called rfie Poles.

A line or circle, passing round the middle of the earth, irom west to east, is called the Equator, or Equinox'tal. The equator divides the earth into Northern and Southern^ Hemispheres.

The Meridian is a circle, cutting the equator at right an- gles and passing through thd poles of the earth. The me- ridian divides the earth into Eastern and Western Hemispheres. The Ecliptic is a great circle, in the plane of which the eanh performs her annual revolution round the sun ; or in which ^he sun appears to move round tlie earth, once in a year.

The Ecliptic is divided mto 12 equal parts, of 30degree$ each, called Signs. The-names of these signs, the charac- ters which distinguish them, and the months in which the sun enters into them, are as follows, vi/,.

Unun names of the Signs.

1 Aries

2 ,Taurus

3 Gemini

4 Cancer

5 Leo

6 Virgo

7 Libra

8 Scorpio

9 Sagittarius

10 Capricornus

11 Aquarius

12 Pieces'

English names.

The Ram The Bull The Twins The Crab The Lion The Virgin The Scales The Scorpion The Archer The Goat The VVate; Bearer The Fiihea

Charac-	Months in which the
ters.	sun enters them.
nr	March
«	April
n	May
a	June
25	July
^	August
^	September
^h	October
t	November
Vf	December
rer :^	January
K	Februarv

22 ELEMENTS 01«^E0GRAPHY.

The ecliptic makes an ang|«|f 23'^ 28' with the equator, and intersects it in the two pqpts <v» and ^, called the JSqui- noxia/ points, because, when |he sun is in either of these points, he shines equally to bmh poles, and the day is then equal to the night in all parts of the world. The times when the sun passes these points, are the 20th of March and 20th of September ^ the former is called the Vernal, and the latter the AuiumnaU equinox.

The points ss and Vf, where the ecliptic is at the great- est distance from the equator, are called the SoUtUial points. The sun passes the first of these, called the Summer Solstice^ on the 21st of June, which is the longest day ; the other, called the Winter Solstice, on the 21st of December, which is the shortest day.

The Horizon is a circle which separates the visible from the invisible part of the heavens. The circle, which limits our prospect, where the sky and land, or water, seem to meet, is called the Sensible Horizon. The Rational or Real Horizon is a circle parallel thereto, whose plane passes through the centre of the earth, and divides it into Upper and Loiver Hemispheres.

The Horizon is divided into 32 equal parts of 11* 15' each, called tlie Points of the Oempass.

The four quartering points. East, West, North, and South, are called the Cardinal Points.

The point of the heavens directly over our head, is call- ed the Zenith ; and the opposite point, or that directly un- der our feet is called the Nadir.

The two meridians, that pass through the four cardinal points and cut each other at right angles, in the poles, ar€ called Colures. Tliat, which passes thfough the first de- grees of fy and ^ is called the Equtnoxial Colure ; and tkat, which passes through the first degrees of 25 and y, \i call- ed the Solstitial Colure. %

Circles drawn parallel to the equator, at the distance of 8° on each side of it, include the space called the Zodiac, which comprehends within it the orbits of all the planets.

The Tropics are two circles drawn parallel to the equator, at the distance of 23'' 28' on each side of it. That on the north side touches the ecliptic in the sign 25, and is called the Tropic of Cancer ; that on the south side touches the e- pliptic ia the sign ^ and is called the Tropic of Capricarru

ELEMENTS OF GEOGRAPHY. ^3

Circles at the distance of 23° 28' from the poles, are call- ed the Polar Circles. The northern is denominated the Arctic Circle, and the southern, the Aniarctic Circle.

The Tropics and Polar Circles divide the earth into Zones^ That part of the earth's surface, lying between the Tropics, is called the Torrid or Burning Zone; the parts between the Tropics and Polar Circles, are called the Temperate Zones-; and those parts, which lie beyond the Polar Circles, are denominated the Frigid or Frozen Zones.

A Climate is a tract of the earth's surface, included be- tween the equator and a parallel of |^atitude, or between two parallels of such a breadth, as that the length of the day in one shall be half an hour longer than in the other. Within the polar circles, however, the breadth of a climate is such, that the length of a day, or the time of the sun's continuance above the horizon, is a month longer in one parallel, than in another. The breadth of the climates continually de- crease, as they approach the poles ; the first climate, reck- oning from the equator, being about 8 degrees broad, while that which is nearest the poles, is scarcely four miles.

The w^ord ClimHte is also used to denote the diiFerence in the temperature of the air, in different places.

The Latitude of a place is its distance from the equator, reckoned in degrees, north or south. If a place be situated between the Equator and the North Pole, it is said tQibe in mrlh latitude j if it lie between the Equator and the South Pole, it is in south latitude.

The Longitude of a place is Its distance, east or west^ from some fixed meridian, measured on the equator.

Oa the equator, a degree of longitude is equal to 60 geographical miles ; and consequently, a minute on the equator is equal to a mile. But as all meridians cut the equator at right angles, and approach nearer and nearer to eaoi other, till they cross at the poles ; it is obvious, that the degrees of longitude will continually decrease, as they proceed from the equator to either pole ; so that in the 60th degree of latitude, a degree of longitude is but 30 miles, or half as long as a degree on the equator.

THE GLOBES.

The Globes are two spherical bodies, whose convex sur- faees arejfl||^sed to give a true representation of tli?

H ELEMENTS OF GEOGRAPHT.

earth and heavens, as visible by observation. One of these is called the Terrestrial^ the other the Celesttal globe. Oft the convex surface of the Terrestrial globe, all the parts of the earth and sea are delineated in their relative form, size, and situation.

On the surface of the Celestial Globe, the images of the several constellations, and the unformed stars are delineat- ed ; and the relative magnitude and position, which the stars are observed to have in the heavens, carefully pre>. served.

In order to render these globular bodies more useful, they are fitted up with certain appurtenances, whereby a great variety of useful problems are solved in a very easy and expeditious manner.

The Brazen Meridian is that ring or hoop in which the globe hangs on its axis, which is repiesented by two wires passwg through the poles. This circle is divided into four quarters, of 90 degrees each ; in one semicircle, the divis- ions begin at each pole, and end at 90 degrees where they meet. In the other semicircle, the divisions begin at the middle, and proceed thence towards each pole, where there are 90 degrees. The graduated side of this brazen circle serves as a meridian for any point on the surface of the earth, the globe being turned about till that point comes unde^r the circle.

The Hour Circle is a small circle ef brass, divided into twenty-four hours, the quarters and half quarters. It is fixed to the brazen meridian, with its centre over the north pole ; to the axis is fixed an index, that points out the di- visions of the hour circle, as the globe is turned round on its axis.

The Horizon is represented by tlie Upper surface of the wooden circular frame, encompassing the globe about, its middle. On this wooden frame is a kind of perpetual cal- endar, contained in several concentric circles ; the inner one is divided into four quarters of 90 degrees each ; the next circle is divided into the twelve months, with the days in each, according to the new style ; the next contains the twelve equal signs of the ecliptic, each being divided into thirty degrees f the next, the twelve months and days, ac- cording to the old style ; and there is another, circle, con- tRining the t^irtj-two points of the tomp»ss> witli tneir

ELEMENTS OF GEOGRAPHY. .^5

halves and quarters. Although these circles are on all ho- rizons yet they were not always placed in the same order. .The Quadrant cf Altitude is a thin slip of brass, one edge of which is graduated into 90 degrees and their quarters, e- qual to those in the meridian. To one end of this is fixed a brass nut and screw, by which it is put on and fastened to the meridian ; if it be fixed in the zenith or pole of the ho- rizon, then the graduated edge represents a \ertical circle, passing through any point.

Besides these, there are several circles described on the surface of botli globes. Such as the equinoxial, or eclip- tic, circles of longitude and right ascension, the tropics, po- lar circles, parallels of latitude and declination, on the ce- lestial globe ; and on the terrestrial, the equator, the eclip- tic, tropics, polar circles, parallels of latitude, hour circles, or meridians, to every fifteen degrees ; and on some globes, the spiral rhumbs, flowing from the several centres, called flies.

In using the globes, keep the east side of the horizon to- wards you, unless the problem require the turning it, which side you may know by the word East, on the horizon ; for then you have the graduated meridian towards you, the quadrant of altitude before you, and the globe divided ex- actly into two equal parts, by the graduated side of the meridian.

The following problems, as being most useful and en- tertaining, aie selected from a grpat variety of others, which are easily solved with a globe, fitted up with the afore- mentioned appurtenances.

I. The latitude cf a place being givetty to rectify the globe for thai place.

Let it be required to rectify the globe for the latitude of Boston, 42 degrees 23 minutes north.

Elevate the north pole, till the horizon cuts the brazen meridian in 42° 23', and the pole is then rectified for the latitude of Boston. Bring Boston to the meridian, and you will find it in the zenith, or directly on the top of the globe. And so for any other, place. C .

26 E1.EMENTS OF GEOGRAPHY.

II. To Jind the latitude and longitude of any place on the ter- ' restrial globe.

Bring the given place under that side of the graduated brazen meridian where the degrees begin at the equator, then the degree of the meridian over it shows the latitude, and the degree of the equator, under the meridian, diows the longitude.

Thus Boston will £e found to lie in^^42° 2-3' north lati- tude, and 70° .58' west longitude from London, or 3° !(/ east longitude from Philadelphia.

III. To Jind any place on the glole, whose latitude and longitude

are given. Bring the given longitude, found on the equator, to the meridian, and under the given latitude, found on the me- lidian, is tiie place sought.

IV. To Jind the distance and bearing oj any ttvo given places, en

the glole. Lay the graduated edge of the quadrant of altitude o- ver both places, the beginning, or 0 degrees, being on one of tliem, and the degrees between them show their distance ; these degrees, multiplied by 60, give the distance in En- glish miles nearly.

V. To find the sun's place in the ecliptic. Look at the day of the month in the outer calendar upon the horizon, (if the globe was made before the alteration of the style) and opposite to it you will find the sign and degree the sun Is in that Jay, Thus on the 25th of March, the sun's place is 44 degrees in Aries. Then look for that sign and degree in the ecliptic line, marked on the globe, and you will find the sun's place ; there fix on a small black patch, so it is prepared for the solution of the follow- ing problems.

VI. To find the sun's declination, that is, his distance Jrcn the equinoxial line, either northward or southtvard. Bring his place to the meridian, observe what degree <jf the meridiap lies over it, and that is his declination. If the sun lies on the north side of the line, he is said to have north declination^ but if on the south side, he has south decline- ften.

ELEMENTS OF GEOGRAPHY. i>Y

Note. The greatest declination can never be more than 23° 28' either north or south ; that bemg tlie distance of tke tropics from the equinoxial, beyond which the iun never goes.

VII. To /i.'iJ tvhere thz sun h vertical on any day ; that is, fo find over whose heads the sun ilhU pass that day.

Bring the sun's place to the meridian, observe his decli- nation, or hold a pen or wire over it, then turn llie globe . round, and aii those countries which pass under the wire, will have the sun over their heads that day at noon.

Note. This appearance can only happen to those who live in the torrid zoncy because the sun never gees fartlier from the equinoxial, northward or southward, tlian the two tropics, from whence he turns again.

VIII. To find over 'whose heads the sun is, at any hour, or at

. ivhat place the sun Is vertical.

Bring the place where you are, (suppose at Boston,) to the meridian ; set the index to the given hour by your watch ; then turn the globe till the index points to the upper 12, or noon ; look under the degree of declination for that day, and you will find the place to which the sun is vertical, or over whose heads it is at that time.

IX. To findf at any hour of the day, ivhai o'clock it is at any

place in the world.

Bring the place where you are to the brass meridian ; set the index to the hour by the watch, turn tire globe till llie place you are looking for come under the meridian, aid the index will point out the time required.

X. To find at what hour the sun rises and sets any day in the

year ; and also upon 'what point of the compass.

Rectify the globe for the latitude of the placevou are in ; bring the sun's place to the meridian, and setmie index to 12 ; then turn the sun's place to the eastern edge of the horizon, and the index will point out the hour of rising ; :f you bring it to the western edge of the horizon, the in^ dex will show the hour of setting.

28 ELEMENTS OF GEOGRAPHY.

XI. Tajind the length of the day and night at any time 0/ f/je

year.

Double the time of the sun's rising that dav, and it gives the length of the night ; double the time of its setting, and it gives the length of the day.

XII. To f.nd the length of the longest or shortest day^ at any

. place upon the earth.

Rectify the globe for that place ; if its latitude be north, bring the beginning of Cancer to the meridian ; set the in- dex to twelve, then bring tiie same degree of Cancer to the east part of the horizon, and the index will show the time of the sun's rising.

If the same degree be brought to the western side, the index will show the time of his setting, which doubled (as in the ]ast problem) will give the length of the longest day and shortest night.

If v.-e bring the beginning of Capricorn to the meridian, and proceed in all respects as before, we shall have, the length of the longest night and shortest day.

Thus, in the Great MoguFs dominions, the longest day is 14- hours and the shortest night 10 hours. The shortest day is 10 hours, and the longest night 14 hours.

At Petersburghs tlie capital of the Russian empire, the longest day is about lyg- hours, and the shortest night ^\ hours. The, shortest day 4^ hours, and the longest night lOj hours,

Note. In all places near the equator, the sun rises and cets at six o'clock all the year. From thence to the polar circles^ the days increase as the i.ttitude increases ; so that at those circles themselves, tlie longest day is 24 hours and the longest night just the same. From ihe polar circles to the poles, the days continue to lengthen into weeks and months ; so that at the very poles, the sun shines for six months t(|iBther in sumtner, and is absent from it six months in iv'inSer — Note, also, that when it is summer with the north- itn inhabitants, it is tvljiter with the southern, and the con- trary ; and every part of the world partakes of nearly an equal share of light and darkness.

ELEMENTS OF GfeO'GRAPHy. S9

XIII. To find all those Inhabitants to ivhom the sun is this mo- ment rising or setting;, in their meridians, or midnignt.

Find the sun's place in the ecliptic, and raise the pole a» much above the horizon as the sun, that day declines from the equator ; then bring the place where the sun is verli- cal at that hqpr, to the brass meridian ; so will it then be in the zenith, or centre of the horizon. Now see what countries lie on the western edgQ of the horizon, for to them the sun is rising ; to those on the eastern side he is set- ting ; to those under the upper part of tlie meridian, it is noon- day ; and to those under the lower part of it, it is midnight.

Thus, on the 10th of April at four o\lock in the morn- ing, at Charlestown, (Mass.) It is son-rise at Brazil, South-America,

("New Guinea, the Japan Sun-setting at | j^j^^ ^^^ Kamtschatka,

Mid-day, or noon, at Persia andNova-Zembla.

r The Bay of Good Hope, Midnight at < in the vicinity of King

(. George's Sound.

MAPS.

A Map Is a representation of the earth's surface, or some

part of it, delineated on a plane, accordiag to the laws of

■ perspective, and contains such circles, br parts of circles,

as the size and situation of the phsce delineated will admit.

The top of a map represents the north, the bottom, the south ! the right hand side, the east, and the left hand, the west. F?«m the top to the bottom, are drawn merid- ians or lines of longitude : and from side to side, paral- lels of latitude. The outermost of the meridians and par- allels are marked with degrees, by means of which, and a scale of miles usually placed in the corner of a map, the situations and distances of places may be found, as on the artificial globe

Rivers are d<?5cribed in maps by black lines, and are wider tovv-ard the mouth, than toward the head or spring. Mountains are represented as on a picture, by a scrl of cloud ; forests and woods, by a kind of ihrub ; bogs and morasses, by shades ; sands and shallows^ by small dots ; C 2

30 ELEMENTS OF GEOGRAPHY.

roads, usually by double lines ; and towns, by an 0 or a small house. Near harbors, the depth of water is some- limes expressed by figures, representing fathoms.

NATURAL DIVISIONS OF. THE EARTH'S SilRFACE.

The first grand division of the earth is into Land and Water.

Dlvtsctis of Land. A great extent of land, not entirely separated by watef, is called a Continent,

There are commonly reckoned tzvo ContinentSj called the Eastern, comprehending Asia, Europe and Africa ; and the Western^ including North and South America. New-Hol- land has sometimes been dignified with the name of con- tinen' ; but is usually classed by gj^i^graphers among the islands of the Pacific ocean. . v^'

A tract of land, entirely surrounded by water, Is an Isl- and. Tracts of land, almost encircled by water, as Bos- ton, are Peninsulas. Necks of land, which join peninsu- las'to a main land, are Isthmuses?.

Land projecting far into the sea is a Promontorv. The end or point of a promontory is a Cape.

When land rises to a very great height above the level' country, it is a Mountain. When this high land extends unevenly to a great length, it is called a chain or range cf Mountains. When a mountain emits flam.es and sulphur, &c. it is a Volcano. The side of a steep mountain is a Precipice.

When land rises to a small height it is called a Hill. The spaces between hills are called Dales ; and very of- ten, and perhaps commonly in America, Vales, or Val- leys.

Divisions uf Water. The waters, that cover so great a portion of the surface of the globe, are collectively called the Ocean, and sometimes the Sea.

Different and extensive portions of these great waters have obtained the name of Ocean Sf These are the ^t-

ELEMENTS OF GEOGRAPHY. 3i

Itfntic, the Indian, the Pacific, the Southern and the Arctic or Frc%en Ocean, The two tormer are each 3000 miles across ; the Pacific 10,000. The extent of the others is not known.' Large collections of water that are nearly enclosed by- land are called Seas ; and smaller collections of this kind are called Sounds, Bays, or Gulfs ; as tlie Mediterranean Sea, Long Island Sound, Chesapeak Bay, the Guif of Mexico.

A narrow communication between a sea or bay, and the ocean, or between two seas or lakes, is a Strait, Mouth, Entrancej or Inlet.

,A great body of fresh water, surrounded by land, or communicating- with tlie ocean only by a long liver, is called a Lake^ Smaller collections of fresh water are call- ed Ponds.

The fountains of water at the heads of rivers, brooks, or rivulets, and from which wells are supplied, are called Springs. WTien the fountains are warmer than usual, or are impregnated with fixed air, salts, sulphur, metals, and other mineral substances, they are called Medicinal, or Mineral Springs.

Streams or bodies of running water, according to their magnitude are called Rivers, Brooks, or Rivulets. Creeks are narrow branches of the ocean, indenting and sometimes insulating the sea coast. Some branches of rivers are sometimes called Creeks. When a large bo- dy of water tumbles over a precipice, it is called a Cata- ract or Falls, as the Falls of Niagara, if the quantity of water be small, it is a Cascahe.

Standing water, in which earth, with grass or shrubs upon it, appears in different parts ; — and low, sunken grounds, full of trees and mire, are called Morasses, Bogs, Fens, but more commonly, among us. Swamps.

COMPONENT PARTS OF THE EARTH.

The Earth is composed of land and water, and is there- fore called terraqueous, it is ascertained, from recent dis- coveries, that the waters contained in the concavities of' the globe, cover at least two thirds of its surface.

32 ELEMENTS OF GEOGRAPHY.

The earth below its surface is composed of various sub- stances, collectively called Fossils.^

All substances dug out of mines of whatever kind such as metals, coal, sulphur, ochre, &c. are called Minerals.

Such of the minej-als as can be malleated or beaten out with a hammer, are called Metals. These are common- ly reckoned seven in number which are reckoned according to their weight in the following order : — 1. Plailna, a white metal, newly discovered in the gold mines of South-Amer- ica, in many of its properties resembling gold. 2. Gold. S. Lead. 4. Silver. 5. Copper. 6. Iron. 7- Tin. To these should be added Quicksilver. Three of these, Plati- na. Gold, and Silver, (of which Platina is much the heavi- est) are called perfect melals, because they remain longest imchanged by fire. The other four are called imperfect met- als, because they may be destroyed, or changed into earth by fire. By a chymical operation on Iron, Steel is produc- ed. A mixture of Tin and Lead, in certain portions,, forms the compound called Pewter.

The best chymists divide bodies, or the objects of chym- istry, into saltSy earths, inflammable substances^ metals and iva- ters. The effects of heat and mixture on these bodies con- stitute what is called The Science of Chymistry.

VOLCANOES.

Volcanoes are burning mountains, which include in xh&\\ bowels sulphur, bitumen, and other combustible mat- ters, the effect of which, when kindled into a flame, is more violent than that of gunpov/der, or any thing yet known in nature. As the explosive force of gunpowder arises from the conversion of water into air, that which takes place in volcanoes is undoubtedly from the same cause. Volcanoes may be compared to huge cannon. From their mouths, some of which are a mile and a half wide, are vomited forth dreadful volumes of smoke and flame; tor- rents of bitumen, sulphur, and melted metals ; clouds of cinders and stones ; and sometimes rocks of enormous bulk are thrown to a great distance. In the great eruption ot Mount Vesuvius, in 1779, a stream of Lava* of an im-

» Lava is the melted matter, which issues from Volcanoes.

ELEMENTS OF GEOGRAPHY. 33

mense magnitude, is said to have been thrown to the height of at least 10,000 feet above the top of the mountain. The quantity of iava thrown out sometimes is so great as to enter cities, forests, and the ocean, in large rivers. Fields have been covered with it, 100 and even 200 feet in thick- ness. The force of the explosion has been so great as to shake the earth, agitate the sea, and even mountains, and overthrow the most solid edifices.

There are three noted volcanoes, viz. Mount Hecla, in Iceland ; Mount Etna, in Sicily ; Mount Vesuvius, in Naples. Tliere are many others of less note in Asia, Af- rica, and America.

EARTHQUAKES.

There are two kinds of Earthquakes ; one is caused bjr the action of subterraneous fires, and the explosion of volcanoes, which are felt only at small distances, and at the time when volcanoes act, or just before they open. The other is supposed to be produced by immense quan- tities of inflammable air, contained and compressed in the caverns and crevices of the earth, which being greatly rariSed by internal fires, and finding no outlet, forces a passage through all obrtructions.

Earthquakes are usually preceded by a general stillness in the air ; the sea swells ;ind makes a great noise ; the fountains are troubled and send foitl) muddy water ; the birds seem frightened, as if sensible of the approaching ca- lamity.

Tb.e shock comes on witli a rumbling noise, like that of carriages ou frozen ground, or thunder ; the ground heaves and rolls or rocks from side to side. I'iie shocks are of- ten repeated, and succeed each other, at short uitervals, for a considerable length of time. Awiul chasms are sometimes made during the shocks, from which issue wa- ter, and in seme instances flames. Whole cities have been swailov/ed up in these chasms, and thousands of people in' them,

Hi'.tory affnrds innumerable instances of the dreadful and various effects of earthquakes.

^* ELEMENTS OF GEOGRAPHY:

MAGNETISM.

The earth contains a mineral substance, which attracts iron, steel, and all ferruginous substances ^ which is called Natural Magnet or Load-stone. The same substance has the power of communicating its properties to all ferruginous bodies : those bodies, after having acquired the magnetic properties, are called Artificial Magnets.

It is well icnown, by long experience, that a piece of wire, or a needle, rendered magnetic, and accurately bal- anced on a pivot, or centre, will setde in a certain direc- tion, either duly, or nearly, north and south. This direc- tive power of the magnet, is its most v.'onderful and use- ful property. J3y it, mariners are enabled to conduct their vessels through vast oceans, in any given direction ; mi- ners are guided in their works below the surface of the earth ; and travellers conducted through deserts, other- wise impassable. i^

The usual method is to have an artificial magnet sus- pended, so as to move freely, which will always place it- self in or near the plane of the meridian, north and south ; then, by looking on the direction of the magnet, the course is to be directed, so as to make any required angle »vvith it. An artificial steel magnet, fitted for this purpose in a proper box, is CAWed. the Mariner r ^Compasst or simply ^^^ C3mpa:s<, and is so well known, as to S0!^^ rio particular description.

There is sometimes a variation in the direction of the magnetic needle, which differs in degree at different pla- ces aad times.

. GRAVITATION.

The attraction of Gravity or Gravitation, called also the centripetal force, is that pioperty and power, by which distant bodies tend towards one another. This is the universal principle of nature, from which all motion arises. By this principle, stones fall, and all bodies, on whatever side of the earth, are kepr, on its surface : by this, the moon pre- serves her proper distance, and statedly performs her rer- oluti.on round the earth, the other satellites attend thcrr

ELEMENTS OF GEOGRAPHY. S5

Tespeciive planets, aii the planets, and comets are retained in their orbits. Hence it appears, that doivn'ward is a term which has respect efiti rely to the cenire of the system, or body to which it is apph'ed ; or in other words, to move downwards is to approach toward the centre of a body, or system ; and to move upward is to recede from the said centre. Thus, the centre of the sun is the lowest point in the solar system, toward which every object in the system is attracted. With respect to the earth, the lowest point is its centre, and every object belonging to that planet, on whatever side, tends toward it. It is consequently erro- neous and improper to suppose that people on the side of the earth opposite to us, walk with their heads downward, or are in danger of falling from its surface.

TIDES.

The regular ebbings and flowlngs of the sea, twice ev- ery day, are called Tic/es. They are caused by the attrac- tion of the sun and moon, but principally that of the lat- ter ; the power of the moon, in this case, being to that of the sun as 5 to 1 .

The earth, by its daily rotation about its axis, presents ■each f>art of its surface to the direct action of the moon twice each day, and thus produces two floods and two ebbs. BiTt because the moon is, in the mean time, passing from west to ea'jjtjn its orbit, it arrives at the meridian of any place, later flyigHi^ did the preceding day ; whence the tv/o floods and ebbs require nearly 2.5 hours to com- plete them. The tide is highest about three hours after the moon has passed the meridian ; for though the force be greater at that time, yet the greatest eifect cannot ap- pear on the water till sometime afterward.

When the moon is in conjunction or opposition with the sun, they both tend to raise the water in the same place. The tides are then highest, and are called sj)nt?^ tides. When the sun and moon are OC^ from each other, the sun depresses those parts which the irocn raises. They are then lower than ordinary, and are called neap ticks. Hence the highest lides happen at the time of rew and full moon, and the lowest when the mooa is at her first and third quarters.

i6 ELEMENTS OF GEOGRAPHY.

The motion and height of the tl(^, as they pass over shoals, and run through straits and inlets, become more various. The Mediterranean and BdJfeic seas have very small tides, because the inlets by which they communi- cate with the ocean are so narrow, that they cannot in so short time, receive or discharge so much, as sensibly to raise or depress their surfaces. In the bay of Fundy, be- tween Nova- Scotia and the United States, the tides rise to the height of 60 feet, and flow so rapidly as to overtake animals feeding on the shore. There are no tides in Jakes, they being in general so small, that the moon attracts ev- ery part of them equally, and therefore no part of the wa^ ter is raised above the other.

THE ATMOSPHERE.

The Atmosphere^ or Alt; is a fine, invisible, and elastic, fluid, surrounding the eartli- and extending some miles from its surface. Without this element, no animal or veg- etable could exist ; there could be neither rain nor dews, to moisten the earth ; and though the heavenly bodies might be visible, as bright specks, yet we should have nei- ther day-light nor twilight, but utter darkness. Air is al- »y, so the vehicle of sound ; without it we should not be able ^ to converse with each other, nor even to breathe.

By its gravity, air is capable of supporting ail lighter bodies ; as smoke, vapors, odors, &c.

- - il*f ■

WINDS. '

When the air is heated, it becomes rarer, and therefore ascends, and the surrounding cold air, rushing in to supply its place, forrris a current in some one direction. A cur- rent of air^ thus put in motion, is called Wind-

Constant, or General Winds, are such as blow always in the same direction. These prevail in the Atlantic and Pacific oceans, between the latitudes of about 28° north and south, and blow constantly from northeast and south- east toward the equator. These are also called Tropical or Genera! Trade Winds.

Periodical Winds are those, which blow in certain direc- tions, during certain periods of time. In some parts the

ELEMENTS OF GEOGRAPHY. S7

Indian ocean, the wind blows six months in one direction, and then six months in the opposite direction. The chang- es happen about the time of the equinoxes and are at- tended with dreadful storms of thunder and lightning. These are called Monsoons, or Shifting Trade Winds. In the West-Indies, the winds blow from the land in the night, and from the sea during the day, changingtheir direction every twelve hours. These are called Zan/ ^ViiZea Bree'z.es.

Variable Winds are those, which are subject to no regu- larity of duration or change.

The constant and periodical w'inds blow only at sea ; on land the wind is always 'variable.

Many parts of the world, and the West-Indies in par- ticular, are frequently visited by Hurricanes. They are sudden and violent storms of wind, rain, thunder and lightning, attended with great swelling of the sea, and sometin:es with earthquakes. There are signs by which the inhabitants are warned of their approach. Some tim» before they come on, the sky is troubled ; the sun more red than usual ; there is a dead calm below ; zrtd the tops of the mountains are free from the mists which usually hover about them. In the caverns of the earth, and in wells, a hollow rumbling noise is heard, like the rushing of a great wind. At night, the stars seem much larger than common ; the northwest sky has a black and me- nacing appearance ; the sea emits a strong smell, and r:£es into va-t waves, often without any wind. These terrible storms happen principally in the month of Au- gust ; destroying all the produce of the ground ; tearing up trees ; ovei turning buildings ; and inundatbg large tracts of land.

The deserts of Africa and Arabia give a burning heat and blasting quality to the air pat,£!ng over them. Al Goree, on the river Senegal, there is an easterly wind from tl;e inland parts, with which thnie, v.ho are suddenly met by it in tlie face, are scorched, as by a blast from a {"urnace.

At the F.)lLlcind I.slanc? an cxtraordir.nry blasting wind i.-; tcit, bi:t iis duration is scldc^m rr:ore than twcnty-four lionrs. it cuts down the hoiLago, as if fires Iiad been made under them ; tl:e leaves are parched ^p snd crun- b!e into dust ; fowl;;;:;; scizvr! \.:ui cran-p-, r.nd n -vfj D

3S ELEMENTS OF GEOGRAPHY.

recover ; men are oppressed with a stopped perspiration* heaviness at the breast, and sore throat, but recover with proper care.

T^e most dreadful winds, peihaps, are those in the deserts near Bagdad, called Samoul, or Mortifying Winds. The camels perceive their approach, and are said to make an unusual noise, and cover their noses in the sand. To escape their effects, travellers throw themselves as close' on the ground as possible, and wait till the winds have passed over, which is commonly in a few minutes. Thus some escape ; but those who die, have their limbs mor- tified.

In Italy, a wind blows, for several days, called Siroceo, which is fatal to vegetation, and destructive to the inhab- itants ; depressing their spirits, and suspending the pow« ors of digestion, so that those who venture to eat a heavy supper, while this wind prevails, are frequently found dead the next morning. It is felt with peculiar violence at Palermo. '

In the deserts of Africa, there are prodigious pillars of sand, which move with great velocity. Mr, Bruce saw several of these at once, some of which appeared to hi ten feet in diameter. They began immediately after the ris- ing of the Gun, and his rays shining through them, gave them the appearance of pillars of iire.

There is a phenomenon, called the IVaier-Spout, hanging under a deep cloud, in the form of a cone, with the vertex downward ; and under it the sea boils up, and rises in a conical form These cones sometimes meet, and they gen- erally begin to appear together : they sometimes move for a considerable space before they break. When they appear at sea, and approach a ship, it is said the sailors lire at them and bre;ik them, as it might be dangerous if they should meet with a ship and break over it. The water-spout is supposed to be an electrical phenomenon.

A IVhtrlwlnd is a wind, wliich rises suddenly ; it is ex- tiemely rapid and impetuous, taking up all light sub* stances from the earth, which it meets with, and carrying them up in a spiral motion. Dr. Franklin supposes that the whirUind and water-spcut proceed from the same Cause. They have each a progrrssive and circular mo- tioR ; they usually rise after calms and great heats,, an<i

ELEMENTS OF GEOGRAPHt. S9

most frequently happen in -ft-arm latitudes ; the wind blows, from every way, towards both ; and a water-spout has been known to move from the sea to the land, and to produce all the effects of a whirlwind. They are both> probably, the effects of the electrical fluid.

VAPORS AND CLOUDS.

Vapors are raised from the surface of the moist eartk and waters, the principal cause of which is, probably, the heat of the sun ; the evaporation being alwa>s ([Greatest when the heat is greatest. The vapors, thus raised, by heat, ascend into the cold regions of the aL-TiiOsphere, and form Cloudsy which aie of the same nature as dews and fogs upon the earih.

When the water in the air ceases to bo suspended, it falls down, and the particles, uniting in falling, forrn drops, or Rain. If it be very cold in those regio'is where the rain begins to be formed, it then descends in Snoiv. When the drops of rain are formed, and are descending, if in their descent they pass through a region of the air cold enough to freeze them, they descend in Hail,

ELECTRICITY.

The earth and all bodies, with wlilch we are acquaint- ed, are supposed to contain a certain quantity of an ex- ceedingly elastic fluid, called the Electric Jluid

Li^hining is the electric liuid in the atmosphere ; dis- charging itself, sometimes from one cloud to another, and sometimes from the clouds to the earth. This discharge occasions the awful roll, or sound, called Thunder.

A machine, fitted up v/ith certain appurteiiances, for the purpose of exciting electric fluid, and making it per- ceptible to the senses, is called an Electrical machim. The sudden discharge of the fluid contained in the machine, gives a painful sensation to any animal placed within the circuit of its communication, called the Electrical Shock.

That lightning and the electric fluid are one and the same substance, has been proved by Dr. Franklin and others. Lightning stiikes the highest and most polny^d objects ; reads bodies to pieces and sets th9in on fixe j dn-

40 ELEMENTS OF GEOGRAPHY.

solves metals ; and destroys animal life ; in all which, it agrees with the phenomena produced by an electrical apparatus.

Some fishes have the power of giving shocks, similar to those of artificial electricity. The torpedo, found in the rivers of South- America, v/hen touched by the naked hand, or any conductor, produces a strong, electric shock. The gymnotus electricus, and some others, possess the same power.

Electricity has been administered for various diseases of the human body } some of which have been relieved, and others perfectly cured.

LIGHT.

' JjIGHt is that, which, proceeding from a certain body to ihe eye, prviduces the perception oi seeing. An exceeding, ly siTiall portion of light, is called a Ray, A larger body of light consisting of many parallel rays, is called a Beam.

The rays of light fly with amazing swiftness, at the ratCj it is computed, of 11,875,000 miles in a minute* or more than a million times swifter than a cannon ball, v/nich' is computed to move 8 miles in a minute. Light i'l found to proceed from both animal and vegetable sub- stances in a putrid state.

The T-zuiligfjl is that faint light, which appears in the east in tlva morning before tlie sun rises, and gradually Tanishes in the west after hf sets.

The sun is the original source o( light to our system ; .md thbucji it rise and set all over the earth, yet the cir- cumstances attending' its rising and setting aie very differ- ent in diiierent countries.

In the equatorial regions, darkness comes on very soon after sunset ; because the convexity of the earth conies quickly between the sun and the eye of the observer. Pro- ceeding from the equator, the tv.'ilight continues a longer time after sunset ; and, in 4S^° N. latitude, it continues through the night in the rr;onth of June. As we approach the poles, the twilight becomes brighter and brighter, till at last the sun does not appear to touch the horizon, but is seen above it many days successively. On the other h.ind, in Vvinter, the sun sinks lower and lower, till it does

ELEMENTS OF GEOGRAPHY. 4.1

aot appear at all, and there is only a dim twilight, for an hour or two, in the middle of the day.

Nothwithsianding the seeming inequality in the distribu- tion of light and darkness, it is certain that, throughout the whole world, there is nearly an equal proportion of light diffused on every part, abstracted from what is ab- sorbed by clouds, vapors, and the atmosphere itself. The equatorial regions have indeed the most intense light dur- ing the day, but the nights are long and dark ; while, on the other hand, in the northerly and southerly parts, though the sun shines less powerfully, yet the length of time that he appears above the horizon, with the greater duration ot twilight, make up for the seeming deficiency.

THE HARVEST MOON,

It is a remarkable and Iiighly beneficial circumstance, that in those countries which aie at considerable distsncee from the equator and the poles, the autumnal full moons, rise nearly at sunset, from the first to the third quarter ; a dispensation singularly calculated to faciiilaie the reap- ing and gathering in the fruits of the earth. This phe- nomenon is called the Harvest Mocn. It is farther observ- able, that this appearance in the autumnal months is pe- culiar to the full moon ; for though, in every month, the moon for several successive days will vary the time of her rising very little j yet in the vernal months, ihis happer.y at the time of the new mocn ; in the winter months, abour. tlie time of the first quarter ; and in summer, at sJie time of the last quarter. In the latitude of 50° north, tlie lime o( the moon's rising is observed to vary only two hours in six days.

NORTHERN LIGHT.

The Aurora Eorcails, or Norihern Light, in many parts of the northern hemisphere, enables the inhabitants to pur- sue their occupations duiing the absence of the sun. No satisfactory conjectuie has yet been ioiined, as to the cause of this phenom.enon. Some liave supposed it to be elec- trical matter, imbibed by the canh U0>T1 the ran, ;n vh-e

U. ELEMENTS OF GEOGRAPHY.

warm latitudes, and passing off through the upper regioQa of the atmosphere, to the place whence it came.

These lights commonly appear at twilight, near the liorizon, of a dun color, approaching to yellow, and some- times continue in that state for several hours, without any apparent motion. In the Shetland Isles, and other north- ern regions, they are the constant attendants of clear even- ings, and prove a great relief amid the gloom of long win- ter nights ; and are there called Merry Dancers. They sometimes break out into streams of strong light, spread- ing into columns, and altering slowly into thousands of different shapes varying their colours, from all th« tints of yellow, to the most obscure russet. They often cover the whole hemisphere, affording a most brilliant prospect* At other times, they assume the color of blood, and make a very dreadful appearance. They have generally a quick tremulous motion, which continues till the whole vanishes*

HEAT AND COLD.

The presence of the sun is one of the principal sources sf heat, and its absence the cause of cold. But, were these the only sonrces of heat and cold, there would be, in the iame p.irallels of latitude, the same degree of heat and cold, at the same season ; which is not the fact ; for very liot days are frequently felt in the coldest climates, and very cold weather, and even perpetual snow, is found in eountries under the equator.

One 'source is from the earth ; probably arising from a mass of heat diffused through it, which, imparted from the earth to the atmosphere, tends greatly to moderate the se- verity of the winter's cold. It is probably fiom this in- ternal heat, that snow generally begins to melt first at the bottom. Another source of heat is the condensation ot vapor, which warms the surrounding atmosphere. This condensation is frequently formed by the attraction of an electrical cloud : and hence the great sultriness often ex- perienced before a storm.

As the earth is a source of heat, so distance from it is a source of cold ; and it is found in ascending the atmos- fhere, Uiat tiie cel^i iji?re^es^ Xhf tops ©f the highest

ELEMENTS OF GEOGRAPHV. 4«

mountains, even under the equator, are continually cover- ed with snow.

The same cause, which makes condensation a source of heat, makes evaporation a source of cold ; as it absorbs the fire in tiie latter instance, which it gives out in the former.

The instrument made use of in measuring the different degrees of heat and cold in tl>^ atmosphere, is called a Thermometer

The action of freezing is always instantaneons. Ice is lighter than the same buik of water, and this is the reason of its floating upon the surface. Boiled water is more easily frozen, than that which has not been boiled ; ansl that which is a little agitated, than that which is entirely at rest.

POLITICAL DIVISONS OF THE EARTH.

The habitable parts of the globe are divided into wha£ are commonly, though very inaccurately, called four. QUARTERS, which, according to their magnitude, may be ranked as follows ; America, Asia, Africa, Europe.

Of these divisions, Europe is tlie smallest, but the most improved and civvlizcd ; Africa the most barbarous, and the least known ; Asm the wealthiest, and the most an- ciently inhabited ; America the largest, the grandest, as to its mountains and rivers, the least populous and wealthy, the last explored and inhabited.

Suhdivi:,ions. Tliese grand divisions of the globe, for the purposes of government, &c. are subdivided into innume- lab'e districts, or portions, of various extent, and under va- rious names ; as Empires, Kingdoms, RepuUus, States, Depart- ments, PriMcipalUksf Dukedoms, Dutchies, Counties, Cities, I'o-wn- ilAps, Parishes, &c. Different nations have different names fur tliese divisions, but they mean much the same tiling.

Several coimtrics, or principaliiies, with diffcient gov- crnments, confederated under one sovereign oi Lead, is called an Empire ; as the German En;pire, which is com- posed of about .'WO principalities j and the Russian Em- pire, which includes many extensive countries, that are divided into 42 different govtrnments, combined under "Urt- Emperor, who i« the head of the Empire,

U ELEMENTS OF GEOGRAPHY.

The territories, subject to one monarch or king, fortrt a Kingdom. Such are Great-Britain, Spain, Portugal, Sweden, Denmark, &c.

A number of separate states having governors, consti- tutions, and laws of their own, confederated under one general government with an elective head, are called a Republic. A Republic, according to others, is a govern- ment in which the executive power does not lie in the hands of a single person. Such is the government of the United States of America.

States and Departments are component parts of republics. Principalities, Dukedoms, and Dutchies are branches of em- pires and kingdoms. Counties, Cities, Toavmhips, Parishes^ &c. are less divisions, common to republics, empires, king- doms, and states. In some parts of the southern states of America, a parish answers to a county. In the northern states, a parish is a district incorporated for the purpose of supporting public worship.

Towns are districts of various extent, commonly about Mi miles square, incorporated for the purpose of choosing representatives, and managing their own internal affairs. All such districts, without regard to the number of houses «r inhabitants, are called Towns, and sometimes Toiunships, in the New- England states. In the southern states, this name is given on!y to places containing a number of houses, less or more, compactly built.

INHABITANTS.

The human inhabitants of the earth are composed of an astonishing number of different nations, of various colors, features, languages, religions, customs, and occu- pations ; and subject to the various forms of civil and ec- clesiastical government.

There seem to be about six varieties in tJie liuman spe- cies, each strongly marked, and indicating little mixture-

The Jirst around the polar regions. The Laplanders, the Esquimaux Indians, t}]e Samoeid Tartars, the inhabi- tants of Nova Zembia, the Borandians, the Greenhmder?, and Kami.chadait;s, may be consideied as one race, re- sembling each ether in stature, complexion; and customs.

ELEMENTS OF GEOGRAPHY. 45

The second great variety in the human species is the Tartar race ; whose country comprehends a great part of Asia ; and consequently Includes a number of nations, of ▼arious forms and complexions : but, however different from each other, they agree in being unlike any other peo- ple. To this race is referred the Chinese and the Japanese.

A third variety in the human species, is the southern A- siatics. The nations of the Peninsular India, seem to be the stock whence the islands scattered in the Indian Ocean have been peopled.

The fourth variety in tlie human species, is the negroes which inhabit the southern parts of Africa, from 18° N. to the Cape of Good Hope.

The Aboriginal Americans, or Indians, constitute the f.fth race of mankind.

The sixth variety of the human species, is the Europe- ans, and their descendants in America : also the nations bordering on Europe, including the Georgians, Circas- sians, and Mingrelians, the inhabitants of Asia Minor, and the north of Africa, with part of the countries northwcs-t of the Caspian sea.

FORMS OF GOVERNMENT.

For their common security and welfare, tl)e inhabitants of the earth have formed themselves into communities, and instituted government, varying in its forms. The govern- ment of no two nations, perhaps, is exactly similar. There are but thrcf. kinds of simple forms of government. Monar- chy, Aristocracy, and Democracy.* All other govern- ments must, of course, be a mixture of these.

The earliest form of government was a species of Mon- archy, called Patriarchal government, in which the chief magistrate, so far as related to government, sustained the authority of a father over his people This form of gov- ernment is said to have existed in China, for a long suc- cession of years.

When the sovereign power is exercised by one man, that government is called a Mr-narchy. The chief magistrate in a monarchical government is styled variously — King^ Monarch, Emperor, Sovereign. Monarchies are of diilerent kinds, despotic, absolute or arbitrary, limited or mixedj • Jou^N Ap;vM3, IJ^^, late presid^Qt of the Uttited Stat«»,^

46 ' ELEMENTS OF GEOGRAPHY.

according to the degree of power vested in the sovereign. The Turkish government is an example of the former : that of Great- Britain of the latter.

An Aristocracy is a government of nobles. Of this kind was the goremment of Venice, till its revolution in 1797. Governments formed by a free people, -or by their prop- er representatives, and administered by officers of their own choice, and where the executive power is not vested in an individual, are called Democracies or Republics.

The fundamental laws of a state or country, which se- cure the rights of its inhabitants, and regulate the conduct •fits rulers, are called its CoNsriTUTiON.

RELIGIONS.

Mankind, in respect to religion, may be divided into Christians^ Jews, Mahometans, Deists, and Pagans or Hea' ■ thens.

Christiaxs. All who profess to be the disciples and followers of Jesus Christ, are called Christians. The greater part of the inhabitants of Europe, and of the A- merican United States, together with those in the Spanish parts of South-America, the West-India islands, and some feA' parts of Asia and Africa, are of this denomination.

Christians are divided into \. Roman Catbolics, who have a Pope at their head, and are thence often called Papists. Tliese are a numerous sect of Christians, inhabiting the southern and intejior parts cf Europe. The Spanish, French, and Portuguese settlements in different parts of the world are mostly of this sect.

2. Protestants, a name given in J 529 to all who renounc- ed the Roman Catholic religion, and emiiraced the princi- ples of the reformation.

Protestants are divided into Lutherans and Calvinists, as they embrace the doctrines peculiar to Luther or Calvin, two of the first and most conspicuous Reformers.

Lutherans and Calvinists are subdivided into Episcopali- ans, PresbyteriansK Congregaiionalisls, Independents, Anabaptists, commonly called Baptists, and Methodists ; and these are again divided into Moravians, or United Brethren, Caj-- Tfinists, Arminians, Arians and Socinians, or UnitariaflSj tjaiversalists, Mpaijguists, Tunkecs, &c.

ELEMENTS OF GEOGRAPHY. 4?

Under the head of Prostestnnts, may be ranked also the FkrENDS, commonly called Quakers^ a respectable, peace- ful and industrious body of people.

3. The Greek Church, which is the religion of the Euro- pean part of the Russian empire, and of part of Turkey in Europe, resembling, in many particulars, the Roman Catholic religion. Its professors like the Catholics, keep I^ent and many other days of fasting ; they have numer- ous ceremonies in their worship — have holy tvater, &c. The great saticitfication of the w-j/^/tj is performed at i'eters- hurg, twice in the year, in commemoration of the baptism of our Saviour, in the most splendid and magnificent man- ner. They d'ffer from the Roman Catholics, in thak they have never acknowledged the Reman Pontiff, or Pope.

Of the Christian sects, the Roman Catholics are the most numerous ; next the Greek Church ; next Protestants. The former are decreasing, and the latter increasing.

The Jfws are the seed of Abraham, or the descendants of the chosen people of Gcd, who formerly inhabited Ju- dea, but are now dispersed, and have became a. proverb, im fulfilment of scripture prr.phecies, in almost every nation under heaven. They adhere to the Old Testament scrip- ture but rtject the New. l^heir number is not known, Snnie have conjectured that they amount to about three millions.

The Mahometans derive their name and doctrine from Mahomet, a native of Arabia, who flourished from the year GOO to 6'i2, after Christ. The book which contains their religion is called the Alcoran, and is the same to a Mahom- etan as the B'lhle is to a Cliristian.

The Mahometans, as well as Christians, are divided into a great variety of sects, under difit'rent names.

Deists. All such as assert the sufficiency, universality, and absolute perfection of natural religion, v<'nh a view to discredit and discard all extraordinary rcjilaiion, as useless and needless, are called Deists.

Lord Herbert, in the 17th century, was the first who reduced Deism to a system.

Pagans or Heathens. Those people who repie^ent the Deity under various foims or images, or who pay di- vine wor^]}ip to the sun, fire, beasts, or any of the crea- tures of God, are called Pagans, or Heathens.

48 ELEMENTS OF GEOGRAPHY.

The Pagans are more numerous than all other religious sects collected, making it is supposed, as many, as nineteen thirtieths of mankind.

The Pagans inhabit all other parts of the globe, whick are not inhabited by Christians, Jews, Deists, or Mahome- tans.

They are divided into innumerable sects, most of which have different idols or objects, to which they pay divine worship. The worship of the Grand Lama is the most ex- tensive and splendid mode of Paganism — This species is professed by a large proportion of the people cf Asia.

The Grand Lama is a name given to the High Priest of the Thibetian Tartars, who resides at Patoli, a vast pal- ace, on a mountain, near the banks of the river Baram- pooter. At tlie foot of this mountain reside 20,000 Lamas or Priests. His worshippers are very numerous., and come from far distant countries. The emperor cf China ac- knowledges him in his religious capacity.

The Grand Lama is never to be seen, but in a secret place in his palace, amidst a great number of lamps, sit- ting cross-legged, upon a cushion, and decked all over with gold and precious stones ; where at a distance, the people prostrate themselves btfore him. It being unlawful for any so much as to kiss his feet. He returns not the least sign of respect, nor ever speaks, even to the greatest princes ; but only lays his hand on their heads, and they are fully persuaded they receive from thence a full for- giveness of all their sins.

It would be endless, almost, to enumerate all the ob- jects and modes of Pagan worship.

OF THE DIVISIONS OF TIME.

The idea of time is acquired by corisidciing the parts of duration, as passing in succession, and separated by inter- nals ; the idea of a day, a month, a year, &c. is obtained, by observing certain appearances uniformly returning at regular periods, includuig equal spaces ; by multiplying and combining these, we procure different measures of time : for instance a Day is a division of time, measured by the appearance and disappearance of the sun ; this .period is of two kinds — artiPiciil, and natural.

ELEMENTS OF GEOGRAPHY. -19

The arufiaal day is tlic tur.c of light, or of ihe sun's ap- pearance above the horizon : in opposition to which, the time of darknci^s. or of the sun's continuance below the -Iiorizon, is called night.

The natural ov civil day, is that space of time wherein the sun rcmpletc'S his circuit round the earih ; or, to speak properly and astronomically, the time of an entiie revolu- tion of the equator. This period is the positive appoint- ment of infinite Wisdom, v/hose pnjlonged operations \\c call the course of nature.

. The revolution of the earth on its axis causes a seeming revolution of the sun, and thus forms a measure of tim.e, whicli we call a day ; this is evidently founded on nature, and is ihe consequence of our observation of the sun : but as the sun seems always alike, and never varies its form, or f^'eneral aspect, the eye does not deiive from him the means of compuiiiig longer periods,of time ; for this, it turns to the moon, whose appointment being to enlighten nigh.t, and who " nightly changes in her circling orb," the notice of these chiuiges becomes the register of a period of tim.e, longer than what can be gathered from the sun. There arc lour particular inst.^.nces of the moon's course, v/hich are so peculiarly marked, it is impossible to mis- take or confound them ; ^first., when it is just visible in a small crescent in the evening ; secondly, when it is exactly bisected, having the light to the right hand ; thirdly, when it is full ; and fourlhy, when it is exactly bisected, having th.e light to the left hand. These correspond nearly to every seventh day, wheitby they iurnish the measures of that period t\ tin:e v^-e call a ivcih, and, T.nited, form the still longer piTiod of a month. Ey months, was long the prevailing mode of reckoning ; as requiring no trouble, no calculation ; simply an inspection of the nightly luminary, ai;d a correspondent memorandum of her aspect.

iSh'nihs and vveelcs evidently began together, being reg- Tilattd !)y the course of the mcon ; but nations acted with great diveisi'y, in fi.vingthe beginning of their days ; seme con)pu'!ng jvom the risings others fixm the setting of the si,n, ci;l;ers ivv.xn i:q: w, oihcrs frrna night. 'J'he ancient B:d-)y!(.n::;ns Per-i.ms, Syrians, and n;oa other eastern na- tions, the Cireeks, ^<c. began their d;'.v with tiK- sun's r's- ir*r i the a-c^etu A:heniv\::s and Jc--^, 'the ntodcrn Auc

50 ELEMENTS OF GEOGRAPHY.

trians, Bohemians, Silesians, Italians, and Chinese, froin the sun's setting : tiie Ancient Umbii and Arabians, with the TOodern astronomers, from noon : the Egyptians and Romans, with the modern Enghsh, French, Dutch, Ger- mans, Spaniards, and Portuguese, from midnight.

A year truly contains 36.'j days, 5 hours, and 49 min- utes : but the most ancient form of the year, is that which divides it into 360 days.

Epochs are certain fixed points from wlych computa- tions are begun, and to which calculations are referred. Ey comparing transactions with the epocli, and tracing their distance from it, we ascertain tlie years in wliich they ivinocned, and assign them their place in the succession ( 1 iiuio. But it is evident this can icspect only the epoch to which they arc referred, as the epoch of one nation is c^isrcgaided by others. The Creatln of the ivcrJd, the Deluge, the Olympiads, the Binhlwg of Rome, and the Birth of Christ, are all celebrated eras in history.

MEASURES.

The measures, most commonly made use of in geo- graphical books, are inUcs and lengues- The English and American niiles consist of 8 furlongs, equal to 1760 yards. The marine league contains 3 miles. The Turkish, Ital- ian, and old Rrman mile differs but little from that of the English. The Dutch, Spanish, and Poli>h mile is iibout 3; English. The German is more than 4 ; the Danish and Hungarian, rriore than 5 ; and the Swedish nenrly 7 Englisli miles

'1 he raanne or geographical mile is longer than the rommon, or English mile. In a degree of the earth's cir- cumference, there a:c GO geog. aphical miiles, which are equal to 61.4 English miles.

In calculating the distance of pl;ices, by degrees of Inn- oi'.iiue, gecc^rapliers generally assume the capital, or some other remarkable phicc ol tr.en own country, as the fixed i-neridian. Thus tl.e French reckon their longitude ficta ',he meridian of Paris, and the English reckon theirs from Greenwich, which is the scat of the Royal ObscTvatory. In tlie prcstn': work, the loi'^giiudc, v. here it is not other

ELEMENTS OF GEOGRAPHY. 51

wise expressed, is calculated from the meridian oF Phlla- dflphi-a, which is 75° S' -IS'' west from Greenwich.

ThiLnph of Mils t Leagues, l^c. ancieni and modern, in English yards.

Yards.

Ancient Roman mile 16"!0,348^

Olympic stadium:^ ,1 of anciciU Roman mils 201,2935

Suidluin=.'- of ancient Roman mile 101,0348

Stadinm= to the 1 1 00th part of a degree i 11,2

Jewibh risin, of which 7ir:i:i::cient Romi.n mile 212,713

Gallic lcaca=l:'i ancient Roman mile 2115,522

Gerni'.n ra^t, or common league in France,=:2 Gal. Icuca 4831,044

rcr-,i..u parasar.;j;=2G..l!ic leagues _ 4831,044

JL'p, pti.in sl!;cne=4 ancient R.Jinan miles 644 1 ,392

G.rman if:;;iie, or tl.at of Scandinavia=2 rasts 9562,083

'i ;v- n-.uo 01 league of Girm:iny=200 Rfienish yards 8239,845

Great Arabian mile, used m Prdestine,in the time of) ,,,.,„

tne Jrusadei, rated at H ancient Roman mue y

Modern Roman mile 1028,466

Modern Greek mile, of 7 Olympic stadia ' 1409,0545

Modern I'rench leaj,'ue=:2500 toi-es 5328,75

Alilc of 'I'urkey, and the common vverst of Russia, "> 1409051'"

su[)posing it 7 Olympic stadia 5

League of Spain=::;4 ancient Roman miles 6441,342

Lar^'e league of Spain=:5 ditto 8051,74

OF THE LOG LINE.

A Log is a piece of hoard, in the form of the quadrant of a circle, Laving iis circular side loaded with weights, to make it swim upright. To this log is fastened a line of about 150 fathoms, called the log-line ; this is divided in- to equal spaces, called knots, each of which ought to bear the same proportion to a nautical mile, as r^ a minute bears to an hour. They are called knots, because at the end of each of them there is fixed a piece of twine with knots in it ; and these are subdivided into tenths. Now a nautical mile=6l20 feet, and the ^T^,- part=5I feet; now ^ : 1 hour :: 51 feet : 6120 feet, or a mile ; therefore, if 51 feet of the log line run off in ,^', one mile will be run off in an hour ; hence, as many knats as are run off in an hour, so

o2 ELEMENTS OF GEOGRAPHY.

many miles the ship sails in an hour. But as the ship*s run is found to be more than that given by the log, owing to the log being drawn forward, they generally allow only hfty feet for a knot ; and some commanders al'ow less. And to measure the time, they have a sand glass, whicL runs out in half a minute.

The line runs off a reel, which turns very easily, znd the log is thrown from the poop, or lee quarter ; and they generally let it run 12 or 15 fathoms, so as to be oat cf the ship's wake, and then begin to count. There is com- monly fastened a piece of red flag, to show where you are to begin to reckon. Care must be taken to have the hour glass and log line correct, otherwise an allowance must be m.ade.

If the log line and the time of the running out of the p-las3 be both altered in rhe same proportion, the number of knots, run out in one glass will still show the numl>cr of miles run in an hour ; for if the knots be 40 feet and the glass run out in 2V', then 24" : 30' :: 40 feet : 50 feet, se that 50 feet is still run out in half a minute.

GEOGRAPHY MADE EASY

>jrv^>-»x-i>%^w*vr»r-^

AMERICA,

OF the grand divisions of the earth, America is muck the largest From its late discovery, by the inhabitants of the eastern continent, it is frequently denominated the Neiv World, or Neio Hemisphere^ a title, which, perhaps, it: may justly claim, when we consider its vast extent, and its unquestionable superiority over any other division of the eartli, in the number and variety of its products, and the interesting consequences it has already produced, and is still producing, with respect to the nations of the world.

Situation and Extent. The soutliern limit of the Amei ican continent is in 56^ south latitude, whence it extends prob- ably to the north pole. Of the northern limit, however, we cannot speak positively, as no discoveries have been made beyond 7'2or 73 degrees of north latitude, its length from north to south, may be estimated at 9600 miles. It spreads from, the 'i5ih to 168th degree west longi- tude from London. Its breadth is very unequal, but sup- posed to average 1500 miles, though in the northern part- :t is known to exceed 4500.

America is in no part jo-ned by land to the old conti- nent. It is separated from Europe and Africa on the east by the Atlantic ocean : the Pacitic ocean divides it from Asia on the west. It contains upwards of 14,000,000 square miles.

Divisions. Though America forms properly but one continent, yet there is a division, so clearly maiked by na- ture, that tlie propriety of its being considered in two sep- arate portions is universally acknowledged. These two regions called North and Sout/i-zUsrifa, are 'oijusd logcph-- £2

5i AMERICA.

er by the Isthmus of Dar'ten, which in its narrowest part, h about 27 miles in width, some say GO or 70. This isthmus is made up of low sickly rallies, and mountains of such stupendous height, that they seem to be placed by nature, as eternal barriers between the Atlantic and Pacific ocean, which here approach so near each other, that from the mountains both may be seen at the same time.

Face of the Country. In America, the face of the country is distinguished by a peculiar magnificence of features. The astonished eye here meets with mountains, whose ic-^.s intercept the clouds in their progress ; and rivers, with which the streams of the old world cannot be com- pared either for length of course, or the body of water, which they convfv to the ocean. The lakes of America are no less conspicuc!.': for grandeur, than its mountains- and rivers.

The luxuriance of the vegetable creation is also very great. In the southern provinces, where the moisture of the earth is aided by the warmth of the sun, the woods are. almost impervious ; and the surface of the ground is hid- den under a thick covering of shrubs and herbs In the northern provinces, though the forests are not incum.bered . with the san:ie wild luxuriance of vegetation, yet the trees are generally more lofty, and often much larger, than are. .^een in any other parts of the world.

In the productions of the forest, America is greatly su- perior to Europe. From a memoir of a European trav- eller, it is ascertained, that in Europe there are thirty sev- en trees, which grow to the height of thirty feel ; of which eighteen form the mass iA their forest, and sixteen are found in every part of Europe. In America there are ninety species oi^ trees, which exceed forty leet in hciglit. They ai e all natives of the forest, and seventy-tv.o are common in all parts of the United States. Tn Europe^, only seven are fit for architecture, in America no less than fiftv-one.*

Populatkn. It is Impossible to ascertain the exact popula- tion of this immense division of the globe. Some authors have exaggerated it beyond all credibility ; and in calcu- lating the population of the v/hole world, have assignee! i.'*0.000>000 to America. If we suppose every part of the • RtEj's Cyciopedia, ARiericaU eUilicii.

AMERICA. 55

continent to be as populous as the United States, the whole number would not exceed ^,0()0,0()0. Hassel, in his ta- bles, axes the number at 21,297,000. This estimate is doubtless too low. The real number is probably about 3.';,()00,000.

Inhabitants. The present inhabitants of America may be divided into two general classes : 1. The Aboriginal inhab- itants, generally called Indians, or those who descended from the rirst settlers of the continent. 2. Those who have rpigrated or been transported to America, since its discovery by Columbus, and their descendants This lat- ter class will be more particularly described, when treating of the diifcrent portions of the continent, which they inhab- it. At present, our remarks will be confined to llie

Aboriginal Inhabitants. These may be considered as divid- ed into three distinct class^es : 1. The South- American In- dians. '2. The Mexicans, and all the Indians south of the lakes, and we'^t of the Mississippi. 3 The northern ttibes, inhabiting Labrador, Esquimaux, and the adjacent coun- tries.

_ The South-American Indians are generally of an oh'i'e complexion, of different shades. Their stature is about the middle size, but some nations rank among the tallest of the human species.

The men and children, in the warm eMmate, and in summer, in the colder regions, go quite n?.ked. "^J'he wo- men v.'t-ar no more covering than tlie most relaxed niodes- ty seems absolutely to require. The cioihng-, of such as make use of it, is made of the skins oi beasts, of feathers sewed logeihcr, and in the southern nations, where they raise sheep, of wool manuiactujed into siufl's aiid blankets.

With respect to religion, some oi tlie Indiyiis are idola- ters. They appear to have some notions (,f a Siqvieme Being, and believe in futnie rewards and punishments: but generally their ideas of religion and govtrnnjenl are very rude. Some nation^', or rather tnbes, live comj;actly in towns, and cultivate tlie earth ; others li;ive no settled habitation, but wander over the country, subsisting on fi.sh and the wild animals of the forest Tl:e I'miviin,:, are supposed to have made greater progress in civiiizaviorvj thaa any olher nation iiihubi;ing the new world.

SS AMERICA.

Though some of these nations are represented as cf tie! and inconstant, others are humane and hospitable. They are generally- attentive and kind to strangers ; and we sel- dom hear of their being first in a quarrel with those who pass their territories.

The second class of American Indians, who inhabit Mexico, and the country south of the lakes, and west of the Missisippi, seem to be advanced higher in the scale of humaa beings, than any of the nations of South-America, except the Peruvians.

The Abbe-Clavigero, a judicious and credible writer, informs us, that, after attentively examining the character, the genius, the ancient history, religion, and government of the Mexicans, he does not hesitate to declare, that their mental qualities are not, in the least degree, inferior to those of the Europeans ; that they are capable of all, even the most abstract sciences ; and thai, if equal care and pains were taken in their education, we should see rise a- mong them, philosophers, mathematicians, and divines, who would rival the first in Europe. But it is riot possi- ble to make great progress in the sciences, in the midst of a life of misery, servitude, and oppression. Their ancient government, their laws, and their arts, evidently demon- strate, that they suffered no want of genius.

They are of a good stature, rather exceeding the middle size ; well proportioned in all their limbs ; have a fine olive complexion ; narrow foreheads ; black eyes ; their teeth are firm, white, and regular ; their hair black, coarse ' and glossy. 'I'hey are neither very beautiful, nor the re- verse. They are moderate eaters, but addicted te intem- perance in drinking ; which appears to be a general char- acteristic of ail the American Indians. They are patient of injuries and hardships, and always grateful for beiiefits. Generosity and disinterestedness are striking traits in their character. Their religion is blended with much supersti- tion, and some of them are very prone to idolatry.

The more northern Indians, whom we have included in the second class, in their complexion, size, and form, are not, in general, unlike tlie Mexicans. In social and do- mestic virtues, in agriculture, arts, and manufactures, they are far behind the Mexicans ; in their hospitality, equal 5 and in their eloqutjice in coo;icil, aod bravery in war, per-

AMERICA. 57

haps superior. Their mode of life, and the stale of socie- ty among them, afford few objects for the display of either their literary or political ab-lities. They are brave, when an enterprise depends on bravery ; education witli them making the point of honor to consist in the destruction of an enemy by stratagem. An Indian will defend himself apainsl a host of enemies, always choosing to be killed, rather than to surrender. In other situations, also, he meets death with more deliberation, and endures tortures with a firmness almost unknown to religious enthusiasm. He is affectionate to his children, and his affection is extend- ed to his other connections. His friendship is strong and faithful to the utmost extremity. Their sensibility is keen ; oven the warriors weep most bitterly on the loss of their children, though in general, they endeavor to appear su- perior to human events *

The third class of American Indians, who inliabit Es- quimaux, Labrador, and the countries adjacent, are much, less known than either of the classes above described. They d'fFer in size and shape fronj the other Americans, and are said lo resemb'e the Laplanders and Samoeids of Europe, from whom it is conjectured they descended.

The E5q>iin;aux are distinguished fiom the southern tribes chieHy by their dress, their canoes, and their instru- ments of chase. Further to the northward, they decrease in height till they dwindle into the dwarfish tribes that in- habit the shores of the Arctic or Frozen Ocean, and the maritime parts of Fludson Bay.

The arctjc countries of America, as well as those of A- sla, have few inhabitants ; and those are of tlie dwarfish kind, scattered on the banks of rivers, lakes, and seas, sub- sisting miserably upon fisli, and the flesh of those animals, that inhabit those frozen regions, with the skins of which they clothe tliemselves.f

The first peopling of America. This is an interesting sub- ject, and has caused much discussion among several wri- ters ; but the places from whence the first inhabitants orig- inated, and the manner in which they, as well as the quad- rupeds and reptiles, passed from tlie eastern to the west-

* Jefferson's Notes on Virginia. •}• Capt. JElhs.

is AMERICA.

ern continent, are questions, which probably can never by- satisfactorily decided.

It is the opinion of many learned men, that the two con- tinents were formerly united. Thnt this earth has expeii- enced great changes since the deluge, will not admit of a doubt. Earihqa ikes have sw-allowed up large tracts of a land in soirje piaces — subterraneous fires have thrown up others -the sea, in some places, has been forced to retreat m. my miles from the shore - in others, it has made en- croachments, and, in many instances, it has separated ter- ritories v-vliich once were united. It is possible that the equinoxial countries of America and Africa, were cnce con- nected by an isthmus, the rem^iins of which are seen in that chain, ot' inlands, of which Cape de Verd, Fernando, As- censi<)n, and St. M ilhews make a part. It is also possible that th" peninsula of Kamschatk* may have joined the northeastern pnrts of Asia to the northwestern parts of A- merica, wliich are now separated only by a very narrow strait. Admitting this supposition to be true, the animals peculiar to hot countries passed over the isthmus that once connected South-America v.-ith Africa ; and those of cold climates ir:igrated from the northeastern parts of Asia. As tiie Lsqiu'manx and Greenlanders perfectly resemble each other, and both resemble the Lappes or Laplanders of ;.;urope, it is rendered probable that they originated from thence Bat all this is uncertain.

History of Us Discovery. Tha first discovery of Ameiita has ge^.eraily been ascribed to Christopher Columbus. But, it being now universally admitted that Greenland forms a part of the American continent, the date of the fis st» discovery must be carried back to the year 932, when the Norwegians first visited Greenland. In the year 1003, the Norwegians also discovered a country, which they call- ed Flnelancf, where they planted a colony This is suppos- ed to have been on the coast oi Labrador ; but all their attempts to establish colgnies, proved unsuccessful, and the knowledge of the country was soon lost.

These partial discoveries of the Norwegians, however, do not, in the lest degree, derogate from the merits ot Columbus ; for Behaim, who was the most complete gc ographer of his time, evinces that there was no prior dis- covery upon the route followed by that great navigator.

AMERICA. 59

The discovery of Vineland could scarcely have been known to him ; and thut of Greenland was so remote, that there was no room for a suggestion that it formed part of a pro- digious continent.* Columbus has therefore a fair claim to the glory of discovering the New World.

Columbus was a native of Genoa ; from a long and close application to the study of geography and navigation, he had obtained a knowledge of the true figure of the earth, much superior to the general notions of the age in which he lived. That the terraqueous globe might be properly balanced, and the land and sea proportioned to each other, he conceived that another continent was necessary ; this continent he supposed to be connected with the East- Indies.

To prove the truth of his system, he found it necessary to obtain tlie patronage of some of the European powers. After several fruitless applications to tlie governments ©f Genoa, Spain, Portugal, and others of less note, he pro- cured assistance from Ferdinand and Isabella, who then governed the united kingdo-ms of Castile and Arragon. A squadron, of three small vessels, was fitted out, victualled for twelve months, and furnislied with ninety men. Of this squadron, Cohimbus was appointed adniiral.

He bailed from Palos in Spain, on the 3d of August, 1492 ; and steered directly for the Canary islands, where he arrived and refitted, as v/ell as he could, his crazy and ill appointed fleet Plence he sailed, September 6th, a due western course into an unkncnvn ocean.

Cojun.biis now found a thousand urforeseen hardships to encounter, wliich demanded all his judgement, fortitude and address to surmount. Beside the difficulties, unavoid- able from the nature of his undertakii;g, he had to struggle witli those whicii arose frt m the ignorarce an.d timidity of the people under his command. On the ]4th of Septem- berhewasastoiiiihedto find that the magnetic needlein tf.eir comnass did not [)o;nt exactly to the poLr star, but varied to" a;d iiie we^t ; and as they proceeded, this variation in- cieas( d. 'I h:s nev.- phenrjnenon filled the companions of CoiuniNus with terror. Nature itself seemed tf) have sus- talnt li a charge ; and the only guide they had left, to poini; \hcai to a safe letreat from an unbounded and trackless o-

' PiNKEinaN,

60 AMERICA.

cean, was about to fall them. Columbus with no less quick- ness than ingenuity, assigned a reason for this appearance, which though it did not salify himself, seemed so plausi- ble to them, that it dispelled their fears, or silenced their THUrmurs. On other trying occasions, he displayed all that cool deliberation, piTidence, soothing address, and firmness, which are necessary for a person engaged in % discovery the most interesting to the world of any ever un- dertaken by man

On the 11th of October, 1492, at 10 o'clock in the even- ing, Columbus, from the forecastle, descried a light. At two o'clock next morning, Roderick Trienna discovered land The joyful tidings were quickly communicated to the other ships. The morning light confirmed the report ; and the several crews immediately began Te Dettm, as a kymn of thanksgiving to God, and mingled their praises with tears of joy, and transports of congratulation. Co- lumbus richly dressed, with a drauTi sword in his hand, was the first European, which set foot in the New- World which he had discovered. The island on which he first landed he called St. Salvador, one of that large cluster, known by the name of the Lucaya or Bahama Isles. He afterwards touched at several of the islands in the same cluster. In steeiing southward, he discovered the islands of Cuba and Hispaniola, inliabited by a humane and hos- pitable people. He returned, and arrived at Palos in Spain, whence he had sr.iied the year before^ on the 15Lh of March, J 493. ''

In September, 1493. Columbus sailed upon his second voyage to America ; during which he discovered the isl- ands of Dominica, Marigalanle, Guadaloupe, Antigua, Porto Rico, and Jamaica ; and returned to Spain, i4')G.

In 1498, he sailed a third time for America ; and on the first of August discovered the Continent. He tlien coasted westward, making other discoveries for 200 leaguec to C?.pe Vela, whence he crossed over to Hispaniola, wliere he was seized by a new Spanish governor, and scat home in chains !

In 1502, Columbus made his fourth voyage to Hispan- iola ; thence he went over to the continent ; and made many nev/ discoveries, particularly the harbor of Por!^ Bello, and the Gulf of Darien.

AMERICA. 61

The latter part of the life of this great man was made wretched by the cruel persecutions of his enemies. Queen Isabella, his friend and patroness, was no longer alive to afford him relief. He sought redress from Ferdinand, but in vain. Disgusted with the ingratitude v'f a monarch, whom he had served with so much fideluy and success ; exhausted with hardships, and broken with the infirmities which these brought upon him, Columbus ended his active and useful life, at ValJadolid, on the '25th of May. 1506, in the 59th year of his age. He died with a composure of mind suited to the magnanimity which distinguished his character, and with sentiments of piety bccommg that re- spect for religion, which he manifested in every occurrence of his life. He was grave, tbf'ugh courteous, in his de- portment, circumspect in words and actions, iireproacha- l?le in morals, and e-xemplai-y in all the duties of his relig- ion The court of Spain we:e so just to his memory, notwithstanding their ingratitude toward him during his ]ife, that they buried him magnificently in the cathedral of Seville, and erected a tomb over him with this inscription :

Columbus has given a New World To the Kingdoms of Castile and Leon.

Among other adventurers to the new world uas Amer- cus Vespucius, a Florentine, whom Ferdinand had appoint- ed to draw sea charts, and who accompanied Ojt cia, an €nterpri.sing Spaniatd, to America, in 1499. On his re- turn, Americas published an account of his voyage, and a description of the ncv/ continent. It circulated rapidiy, and was read with admiration. In this narrative he insin- uated, that the glory of having fitst discovered the conti- nent in the New World, belonged to him. 'J his was in part believed, and the country began to be called after the name of its supposed first discoverer. The unaccounta- ble caprice of mankind has perpetuated the error j so that now, by the universal consent of all nations, this new quar- ter of the globe is called America. The name of Amer- icus has supplanted that of Columbus, and mankind are left to regret an act ^ \'v injustice, which, having been sanc- tioned by time, the>bet\*. never redress, F

^ NORTH-AMERICA.

NORTH-AMERICA.

Boundaries, Siluation, Extent. THIS division of the western continent includes all that part lying north of the Isthmus of Darien. It is bounded east by the Atlantic, and west by the North Pacific ocean, its southern boun- dary line is the parallel of 7 30 N. ; whence it extends to the north pole ; in length about 80 degrees, or 5200 miles. its greatest extent, from west to east, is generally reckon- ed from the promontory of Alaska, in about 90° W. Ion. to Cape Charles, the most easterly point of Labrador, in 20'^ E. Ion. from Philadelphia ; in breadth 4570 mjles. If Greenland be considered as a part of North America, to which it is probably united, its extreme eastern limit will extend nearly to 55'' E. Ion. Its average breadth is about 1500 miles.

Climate. In a region of sucb vast extent, as North- Amer- ica, the climate must of course be various. It experiences every temperatureof the atmosphere, from theburning heats of the torrid zone, to the intolerable colds of the polar legions. Almost every division of the continent has a cli- mate of its own, which will be noticed in its proper place.

Seas. Baffin's Bay, is the largest aiid m.ost northerly of any yet discovered. It lies beyond the 70th degree of N. iat. and opens into the Atlantic ocean through J)avis's Straits, between the coasts of Labrador and Gtt^land. This bay has never been explored, except by its discoverer, William Baffin, in 1662, and many modern geographers doubt its existence ; it however still occupies a place on maps. The strait, which connects it with the Atlantic, is j^s wide as the Baltic sea.

Hudson Bay was discovered in 1610, by Henry Hud- son, a#d lies between 55 and 65° N. Iat. 3( 0 leagues broad, comtonmicating with the Atlantic ocean by Hud- son's Strait. The gulf or sea, called Davis's Strait, may be considered as a part of Hudson Bay, and most probably joins the Arctic ocean. Hudson Bay abounds with the beluga, or white whale. Large stuigeons are also caught in some parts ol it. ' {.|,p

The Bay or Gulf of St. Law}\ ",.• is foiincd b) the siouth of the river of the same name, which is i;0 iriil«;

NORTH. AMERICA. '53

broad. It communicates with the Atlanlic on both sides of the island of Newfoundland.

The Gulf of Mexico is th.it part of the NoilhV\tlantic ocean, which washes the south and south-western shores of FioriJa and the eastern shores of Mexico. It lies between North and South- America. Its coasts arc indented by many lesser gulfs and bays ; the chief of which are the bays of Honduras. Canipeachy, Palaxy and St. Louis. It is conioctured by some to have been foimeriy land ; and that the constant attrition of the waters of the Gulf Stream has worn it to its present form.

Ldc:. There aie reckoned above /la? /Avwc/r^ii lakes iri North-Am.erica ; a singularity which distinguishes it from every odier portion of the globe. Those of the second or tliird class are superior in magnitude to arfy lakes iii-,thti,. easccrn continent, the Ca>^pian sea excepted ^ and even that is riot equal In size to Lake Superior. This noble lake is tiiC largest body of fresh water on the globe, being 1.500 ir.Iles in vfircumference. It is situated between 4G and 50*^ N. lat. and between 5 and 11" W. Ion. The water is very clear and transparent. A great part of the coast is rocky and uneven ground. Storms are more dreadful here, than. on the ocean. It is often covered with a iog, which, when the wind is easterly, falls on the western shore ia torrent-, of rain. It abounds with a great variety offish, such as trout, pickerel,' carp, bass, and herrings.

There are many islands in this lake, some larg-e enough to form considerable provinces. The Indians suppos'.* these islands to be the residence of the Great Spirit.

This lake receives about 4-0 rivers, and discharges it.;^ waters from the southeast corner, throui^h the straits of St. Marie, about 40 miles long, into Lake Huron.

Lake Huron is the next in size, being more than I0C(5 miles in circumference, lying between i^"^ oO' and ■17 30 N lat. It communicates wi'Ji Lake Michigan on the west, and with Erie on ihe south. On the south-west part in Saganaum Bay, 80 miles long, and '20 broad. ItaI)ounds with fislr ; and on its banks arc found amazing cjuantiiies of sand cherries.

Michigan Lake is wholly within the territory of the \]-. nited States, lying between 41 and 46° N. lat. and is L'I'.'j miles in circumference. It is navigable for ships of any

6i NORTH- AMERICA.

burden, and communicates with lake Huron by the Straits %)i Miciiiilimakinak, 6 miles broad.

Erie is a iake ot the I'ourth magnitude, of an oval form, 2'2,> miles loner, 'tind +0 broad ; between 4 1 and 43 degrees N. lat. It affords good navigation for sliips of any burden. Its banl<s in many places are flat and sandy ; but on the south side, at the entrance of Cayahnga liver, are danger- ous rocks, 40 or 50 feet higli, projecting over the lake. The view of these rocks from the water is sublime beyond description ; and the Indians never pass them, without cf- feiing a sacrifice of tobacco to the spirit of the water.

Ontario forms the Hfth link in this grand chain of lakes. It is situated between 43 and 44" N. lat. ; abcut 600 miles in circumference, communicating with Lake Erie by Ni- agara river. The waters of tliis lake are discharged into the river Cataracjui, (which afterwards takes the name of iir. l.av.'rence) and thence into the Atlantic ocean.

Wlicn the population of Nortli-America shall have dif- fu.^ed itself toward the west, the banks of these lakes may becojiie the seats of flcurishing cities.

Numerous other lakes of smaller extent will be biiefiy described in the course of this work.

Rivers. Tha Missisippi with its eastern branches, wateis ilve eighths oi the territory of the United States, and, pre- vious to the purchase of Louisiana, formed their western boundary. It rises in White Bear Lake, lat. 48 J 5 N. and about 24 22 \7. Ion and empties into the Gulf of Mexico by several mouths, 100 miles below Nev*--Orleans. It is navigable to the falls of St. /Anthony, between 44 and ■\'j° N. lat. where the whole river, which is more than 250 yards wide, falls perpendicularly about SO feet, forming a •^riind and most pleasing cataract

The Missouri rises in Louisiana and falls into the Mis- sisippi 1160 miles from the mouth of that river, in the Gulf of Mexico. It is siid to be navigable 1300 miles, a!^d, at its junction with the Missisippi, is the largest of the two rivers.

The Ohio is a most beautiful river, separating Ohio state and Indiana and lillinois territories from Virginia and Kentucky. Its current is gentle, its wafers clear, its bo- som smo )Lii and unbroken by rocks, a single instance ex- cepted ;\t its junction with the Missisippi it is about 900 yards wide.

NORTH-AMERICA. 65

St. Lawrence river issues from Lake Ontario, forming an nutlet to the great chain of lakes already described » It takes a northeast course, and meets the tide upwards of 400 miles from the sea. Having received in its course several laige rivers, and innumerable small streams, it empties its vast body of water into the Atlantic ocean at Cape Rosieres, by a mouth 00 miles broad. This river may be classed among the most noble in the world ; its waters flow more tlian 2a0v) miles before they leach the ocean ; its commercial advantages increase in proportion to the settlements on its banks

There are many other large rivers in North-Amerlca, as Columbia, which empties into the Pacific ocean in lat. 46 18 N. on the northwest coast; the Rio Bravo, which falls into the Gulf of Mexico ; Albany, Nelson, and Church- ill rivers, which empty ixito Hudson Bay ; Copper Mine and McKenzie's rivers, which empty into the northern ocean ; and others which fall into the Pacific ocean, of which little is yet known, bur their names.

MountaiT^. Between the x^tlantic. the Misslsippl, and the lakes, is a long cha n of mountains, made up of a num- ber ot ridges These mountams extend northeasterly and southwesterly, nearly parallel t(^ the sea- coast, about 900 miles, and are from GO to 200 broad. Tracts of fine ara- ble and grazing land intervene between these ridges.

These mountains, taken collectively, are called the Al- legany mountains. The various ridges pass by different names, as the Blue Ridge, the North Ridge, the Allegany Ridi^e, the Laurel Ridge, Jackson's Mountains, and Kitta- linny mountains. All these ridges, except the Allegany, are separated by rivers, which appear lo have forced their way through solid rocks.

On the western side of thi-s coniiwent, a range of moun- tains proceeds from Mexico in a northern direction, and joins the ridge called Stony Mountains, which extend near- ly to the Arctic Ocean. The v*fltony Mountains are said to be 3.-7J0 feet above their base, which is probably 3000 feet above the level of the sea.

On the northeast, Greenland, Labrador, and tlie coun- tries around Hudson Bay, present irregular mahses, cover- ed with eternal snows.

On the western coan volcanoes have bcc.a observed by V 2

66 NORTH-AMERICA.

navigators ; and it is believed that one or two have for- merly existed in the United States.

In the preceding brief description of the seas, lakes, rivers, and mountains cf North-America, vt'ehave noticed those only, which, from their extent and magnitude, could not be considered, as belonging to any one separate divis- ion. Those which are confined within the limits of par- ticular states or territories will be described in their ap- propriate places.

Productions. When North-Arserica was first visited by Europeans, it might be regarded, except Mexico, as one imme'use forest, inhabited by wild animals, and by a great nurriber of savage tribes, who subsisted by hunting and fishing. Many of the vegetables and animals were found to be Oi diiFerent species from those of the eld world. A vast variety of the pine genus, with other evergreen?, composed a large share of the forests, AwA^g^ve a dark and gloomy hue to the face of the country. The larger animals of ch.ae were the black bear, the musk ox, the bufF'.Io. the mo;- -J or elk, and some other species of deer; the smaller kuKls, valued chiefly for their fur, were ex- tremely numeious, as they continue to be, where man has not encroached upon their haunts. The beaver, the rac- oon, varieties of foxes, many species of the weasel genus, innumerable squirrels, the ghitton, the porcupine, several beasts of prey of the Cdt kind, furnished objects for all the sagacity and activity of the hunter.

History. Noilh- America was discovered by .John Cab- ot, a Venetian, wlio obt:i'ned a grant from Hfniy VII. of England, to discover nnknfwii lands and annex ll;!e.'^ to the crov.-ii. In 1196, lie discovered the coast of Lab- ra.i )r, and in liOT, Newfoundland Island, and tra\ersed the coast from thence to Cape Florida.

Other European powers granted patents to navigators, who explored the continent made settlements, and laid claim to the country by right of discovery.

The following summaiy view exlnbiis ^he chronolopical order in which the first ptrmaneac setCiemeats were made ;n North-America,

NORTH-AMjERICA.

61

Thames cf places, Mr-xico, and other > ^^

Spanish dominions, 3 vOuebcc, Virginia, Newfoundland, June,

TABLE.

IVhsn settUJ, By ijuhom,

^21 By the Spaniards. 1603 By thfe French.

Me-.v-York, 7' , vt I ?• about

New- Jersey. 5

Plymouth,

New-Hampshire,

D-'l.uvire, 7 1':. ii^yiv iiiia,^" M.usar'iu-eits Bav,

Aiarj'land,

Connecticut,

Rhoile-I-hiid, Soutli-Cirolinaj

Penu.ylvania,

Louisiana,

North-Carolina, about 1710

1610 By Lord de la War.

16 10 By Governor John Guy.

1612 By tiie Dutch.

5 ^y P'^'"' °^ '^■"- R<>^'"son'3 congrega- \ tiun. . CBy a snail English colony, near the "^ \ m; ath of Piscat^.qua river.

16'27 By tlie Swedes and Fins.

IC'iS By Caf.t J F.ndicotand Co.

... ^ By Lord B.dnmore, with a colony of

I Rom in Catholics. , CByMr Fenwick, at Saybrook, near

( tiie mouth of Connecticut river. 163,5 By Mr R Williams, and hisfollowers. 1669 By Gov. Sayle. ,^-,^ \ By William Penn, with a colony of

l_ Ou.ikers. 1699 By the French.

', By a number of Palatines from Ger- X many

And about 172S F.rrcted into a separate' government. Gcnrg'ia, 17.32 By Genera! O.dethorp.

'i'cnnessee, about 17.'^0 By Col Wood, and others.

Kentucky, 1773 B\" Col Daniel Boon

Vermont, about

Oi.io.

. _ „ , C By emigrants from Connecticut, an<J.

<^ otiier p-ft^ of Ncw-Knii:.land. 1787 By the Ohio and otiier companies.

Dlvisirjnf, In ihe sub'^.eqiient description ot the North- Amcnc.in contineiit., wl' shall coniide: it in fo'jr sepaiHte grand divisions And, to preserve, jis nearly as possible, a rcgtii.ir ;_;cograph;cal itansition from one province to an- oihcT, shall describe ihcin in the foilovving oiuer ;

1. Rus.MAN Amirica, embracing the ishir.ds of Spits- bergen, lying N. h of Greenland ; and the Monhv.esr Coa.st, from Poitlock harbor northward.

68 ABORIGINAL AMERICA.

2. Aboriginal America, or Native Tribes and uncon- quered countries, including Greenland, Labrador, and the Northwest Coast.

3. British America, including the British Provinces oi> the Continent, and the islands in the Gulf of St. Law- rence.

4. Independent America, or the United States.

5. Spanish America.

RUSSIAN AMERICA.

SPITSBERGEN consists of one large and many small- er islands, lying about 150 miles E. of Greenland It \z a fiozen, barren spot, uninhabited and is a meie resting place for fishermen.

Tlie Northwest Co^st claimed by the Russians, extends from Portlock harbor, between N '.at 58" and 59° north- ward about '2500 miles, including the islands on the coast. 1'he number of natives, who professed obedience to the P-Ussian government, m 1784, according to SheiikofF, was^ 50,000. Ul the Sfttlements on this coast, contain, ac* cording to Hassel, SCO Inhabitants.

ABORIGINAL AMERICA.

UNDER this general head, we include all that vast portion of the /American continent, which lies north and west of the British Provinces and the territory oftheUnit^- ed States, extending northward to the north pole, and westward to the Pacific ocean. Our knowledge of ths various nations and tribes inhabiting this imn;ense tract, is not such as to admit of very minute descriptinns, or eiven to pursue a perfect regularity in the arrangement. W& shall commeace with the northeily part?.

GREENLAND. 66

GREENLAND.

UNDER the appellation of Greenland Is comprehended an anr^ular tract, the southern point of which, named C;ipe Farewell, lies in Che 60th degree of north latitude. Its two sides, eastern and western, extend to an indetermi- nate distance northward, and little more than the coasts have ever been explored.

Climate. Greenland may, with propriety, be called the empire of continual winter. The cold is so piercing in February and March, that the rocks split. Ice and frost penetrate through the chimneys, without being thawed by the tire in the day time.

Their short summer, which begins in June, and close? in August or September, is very warm, but foggy. Dur- ing the summer, there is no night in the country. Beyond tlie (J6:h degree, the sun does not set in the- longest days. In winier, tae days are proportionably short. The north* em iit;;hts diversify the gloomy winter.

G:'n£ra! .'appearance and Productions. Tlie land rises into high, rugg?d peiks, either black and naked, or incrusted with ice and snow. In the scnthern parts, there is a scan- ty and puny vegetation of trees, sh; ubs, grass, and plants.

jinimals. The quadrupeds are rein-deer, dogs resem- bling wolves, arctic foxe?, white hares, polar bears, and wolverenes. Birds of prey and sta fowl are numerous, and the shores are frequented by the walrus, and several species of seais, The^c and the hsh, constitute the riches of .!ie country, and the chief sustenance of the poor na- tives.

Inhabitants. The Greenlanders are a branch of the Es- quiinaux, of small stature, ignorant, superstitious, and squalid, but harmless, and ingenious in the construction of their canoes and fishing utensils In their light skiffs, midQ of skins, extended by ribs and covered with a mem- brane, which draws close about their bodies, furnished with a nicely constructed dart and line, and clothed in water proof garments, they will paddle single to the great-

70 GREENLAND.

est monsters of the deep, attack, and generally succeed in making them their prey. This life of hardship, however, keeps their numbers small ; and the perils of the ocean, and inclemencies of the climate bring many to an untime- ly end. I'Jie Danish government have a colony of 6100 souls, planted in this country.* The natives, in 174-3, were estimated at 24', 000.

Relni'ion. Wiih respect to religion, the Greenlandcrs are said to believe in the doctrine of the transmigration of souls, and their notions concerning a future state are very' singular and romantic. The Moravians and the Danes supprrt missionaries at Ijichicnau, New-Hernhut and Lichtenfels, in Greenland ; and their labors have been at- tended with great success.

History. It h.A^ already been mentioned, that Green- land was discovered and colonized by the Norwegians, abcut the year 982. 'i'his colony bestowed on the coun- try the name of Greenland, which indicates thnt it appear- ed a land of verdure to men who were accustomed lo nouhern sterility. They were convened to Christianity by a missionary, sent thither by the celebrated Oiaf, the first Norwec^ian monarch, who en. braced the Lhiinian re- iigion.

After flounsh:ng so much, as to possess clmrches and inonasrr^rics, and even a Crtthed' ii arid a .succession (f bish- ops, the colony sunk under famine and dii-er^ses, and left fiVv' traces of iis former exisience. N ivigaw^r-:, ar.d wliale- men made occasional visits to ih.' western cr^isis, and the D;uies established a commerce wiih the natives ; but no attempts v/ere made to colonize, till a Lu;ii.'ran clergy- man or Norway, named Egede, inspired by an ardt.'nt zeal for communicating the benefits of tl:t; Christian re- ligion and civilization to this d^^scrted country, repaired, in 1751, to the western coast, with a few settlers, and em- ployed miany years in his pious labors. The cause was taken up by the society of Hernhatters, or Moravians, and afterwards by the Danes, with success ; and several settlem.ents have been formed by them, and peopled witJ: converted nations, whose condition has been 8;reatly im- proved by their efforts.

♦ Hassel'3 Tables.

LABRADOR AND HUDSON BAY. 71

LABRADOR AND HUDSON BAY,

Situation, Extent y Names. LABRADOR is an extensive territory, lying between the east const of Hudson Bay and the Atlantic ocean, and extending from 48 to 63 degrees north latitude.

The parts on the west and south of the Bay, extending inland to an indeterminate distance, have been denominated New North Wales, and New South Wales. On the north, the bay is bounded by unexplored regions.

The whole of these countries, taken collectively, lie be- tween 4S and 70 dei^rees north latitude, 8.50 miles long, and 750 broad, and are sometimes called by the general name of New-Britain ; a name, however, which has not been admitted into maps. I'hey are also called the country of the Esf^uiMAUx ; these people being the na- tive inhabitants oi^the shores of Hudson Bay.

Climate. As dismal and frozen as these regions are, they are becoming still more cold and intolerable. It is a sin- gular, but well established fact, that, v/hile other c'.imes are becoming more mild, the northern part of America is becoming more inhospitable. The cold is much more se- vere, than in the corre'^ponding latitudes on the Europe- an continent. Even in latitude 57', the ice on the rivers is eight feet thick, and brandy coagulates. The rocks burst with a horrible noise, equal to tliat of heavy aitille- ry, and the splinters are thrown to an ama/.ing distance.

Mock suns and halos are frequent in these northern cli- mates ; the sun rises and sets with a large cone of yellow- ish light. The aurora borealis diffuses a variegated splen- dor, which equals that of the full moon ; and the stars sparkle wrih a fiery redness In the sh.ortest day, the sun rises about five minutes after nine, and sets ave nilnuies before three.

Face of iLd Country The eastern coast is h:irrpn, past the eir.)ris of cultivation. The suiface i; every where un- even, and covered with masses of stone : the vaiiies are full of lakes, formed of ram and snow, so 'hilly as to be productive only of a tew small trout. The mountains have

12 LABRADOR AND HUDSON BAY.

here and there a blighted shrub, or a l.Ittle moss. In some places there are a few crooked, stunted trees, as pines, fir, birch, and a species of juniper.

Labrador produces a beautiful erridescent felspar, called Labrador stone, said to have been first discovered, in sail- ing through some lakes, wher^ itsbiight hues were reflect- ed from the water.

Animals. The animals of this countiy are the moose, deer, stag, rein-deer, bears, tigers, otter.s, martens, lynxes, wild cats, and hares. The eastern coast presents nume- rous islands, covered with flocks of sea fowl, particularly cider ducks. It is a surprising phenomenon, that most of the beasts and fowls of these regions, though of different colors in summer, are all white in the winter.

Inhabitants and Religion. The inhabitants among the mountains aie Indians ; along the coasts, they are Esqui- maux, the same sort of people with the Greenlnndcrs, and the Laj-^pes and Samceids of Europe. The Esquimaux are a dwarfish race, with long, b^ack hair, small eyes, and flat faces. The Moravians have missionaries establish- ed at (Jkkak Nain, and H"pe I )aie In tliis cold and drea- ry country, they are pursuing their labors, among the poor Esquimaux, with " increasing joy and thankfulness."*

Histf,ryy Settlements, Iffc Labrador was discovered about the year \5h5, by Frobisher, who also discovered the strait which bears his name.

Hudion Bay was discovered by an English navigator of that name, m 16I0. The coast of this bay, as well as the extensive region of Labrador, cannot be reckoned as ' occupied by Europeaii settlers. Ti;ereare, however, some factories or trading p( sts, belonging to the Hudson liay company, which was established in ]670, for the purpos- ses of commerce an.' plantation. These are Aibany-Fort and Moose-Fort, i>n .Tanie,> Bay ; which is the soiuh>.-rn ex- ttemity of Hudson Bay ; Severn-house, at the m( nth of Severn-river; York Fort, on Nflcn's river ; and Cl.urch- ill-Fort on Churchill river, which is the most northerly of their posts. 'Jli^se are only houses ii. habited by the ser- vants of the com.pany, who trade with the natives for furs, which are often brought from great distances within land. • Periodical accoujits of >^eJBrc;hrcu, No. 39.

^'mrERIOR COUtifRIEiS.

n- T*

INTERIOR COUNTRIJgj^.

CONCERNING the Inlerior paits of N^ith- Amcvic;!, little wfts known, till the dliiicult and laboril^TW rntei piiscs of Mr. Mackenzie', peifoinicd in ITSOand i*9S. Previou;^ to these however, Mr. Hearnc had tollowod Copper-Mine river northward to the Arctic Ocean. The slioies of this river were inhabited by Esquimaux.

Mr. Mackenzie, embarF;ed at Fort Chepewyan. on the Lake of the Hills, i^ latitude SS'"" 40' north, lon|^iuide i 10 liO west, in a canoe ot hircli !)ark, with ten associates. His course ^vas nortliwesterly to stek tlil Arctic Ocean. Moun- tains and vaHies, dreary wa^tci;, and wide spreading for- ests, succeed each other in his description. Small bandi of v.'andering savages were the only people he discovered.

After leaving the Lake of the Hills, he entered Slave river, from which he passed to Slave lake', near latitude 61 and G2 north, and longitude 1 10 to 120 west. The coi^n- iry around wears a barren aspect, but produces berries, large trees of spruce, pine and white birch.

From this lake, he entered a river, which he called Mac- kenzie's river, a deep and spacious stream. On its banks he found encampments of Knistineaux Indians, a wander- 1^ ing tribe, spread over a vast extent of country. Tlieir lan- guage is the same as that of the natives on the waters of the St Lawrence, and tlie coast of Labrador. They are of a moderate stature, well proportioned, and active, 'Iheu- dress is simple ; tiieir countenance open, and their eyes black. 'I'heir women are the most comely of savages.

The otlicr principal tribes, inhabiting the west side of Mackenzie's river, fiom Slave lake, aie ihc Stiong-bovv?, Mountain, and Hare Indians; tho'c on th.c east aie the Bfaver, Inland, Nathana, and Quarrelers.

After proceeding down this river to latllude 6f)° I', ho reached tlie tide waters of the Frozen Ocean ; but, in the middle of July, was unable to proceed further, on account of the ice. He returned to Cl)epev/y;'.n fort, after an ab- sence of lO'J days. (;

74 . INTERIOR COUNTRIES.'

In October, 1792, he proceeded on a voyage to the North Pacific Ocean. From the Lake of the Hills, he ascended Peace river, which is a quarter of a mile wide. The lands on this river are low and rich, inhabited by the Beaver and Mountain Indians. Tliese people are said to be in the lowest state of debasement, and are a barbarous race of beings. The women perform all the drudgeries. Their liabitattons are formed by setting up a number of poles, united at the top, and forming a circle of 12 or '5 feet diameter at the bottom. These are coveied with dressed skins.

In the mountains, which separate the waters of the At- lantic and Paciiic oceans, are several chasms, which emit smoke and fire, and a sulphureous smelK

Finding the streams of the west didnot tend^irectly to the sea, Mr. Mackenzie proceeded by land for a consider- ^ fible time. As he advanced nearer the coast, the settle- ments of the nitives were more numerous and permanent ; the manner of living more comfortable, and the state of society improved. The people were hospitable ; they ap- pearcd to have stated seasons for public and private wor- ship, and had temples decorated with hieroglyphics.

In latitude 52" 2P 33" north, 'and longicude i2S° 2' west, Mr. Mackenzie reached the Pacific ocean ; and in- scribed his name on a rock by the shore.

It would be impossible to enumerate all the tribes of Indians inhabiting the interior parts of North- America. Their modes of hunting and warfare, their cruelty to their ^^ prisoners, the sinj^ulaiities of scajping, ar d olhcr ^frrfr/?/ ^' characteristics, have been frequently described, and are gene: ally known.

Captiiins Clark and Lewis, with a select and v.ell fur- nished company, in the years 1&05 and ISCb", paiscd up ;he Missiouii river and thence to the Pacific ocean, i'SBo miles, under the auspices, and at the expense, of the gov- iM-nment of tlic Unlttcl Sia'.e?.

A privi'te cf.T.pany pa:'"ed from the moulh of Colum- bia river, to i!:e Misjis'-pps rn a {tifFcrcnt rout, in 1815*'

NORTHWEST COAST.

NORTHWEST COAST.

Ti^E counlry of the northwest part of .America, iying ff-n the Pacific ocean, ami ex!:ending south nearly to the SOth degree of north latitude, is known by the genera: name of The Northwest Coast.

Accordin:^ to the accounts of various navigators, tiiese regions, with littie deviation, have the appearance of con- tinued forestb, being covered with pinei, alder, birch, and various kindi of underwood. Tht; vallicb anii plains pro- dace CUM ants, goosberries, raspberries, and numeroa.; li jwering shrubs.

The climate on tliis side of America is mildtr than that on the eastern, in the same latitudes. South of 4-5 degreeij it is said to be one of the Hnest climates in the world.

On the coast are many spacious bays, commodious har- bors, and mouths of navigable rivers, among v.hich Noot- ka sound, Admiralty Bay, Fort Mulgrave, Prince Wil- liam's Souad, and Cn^^k's inlet, are the piincipal. The peninsula of Alaska, extending westward beiv.'een Bristol Bay and Prince William's sound, is the most vresterly point of the continent of America.

The coast is inhabited by numerous, but small tribes of Indians : each tribe is independent, and governed by its own chief. Tliey diff/r from each other in language and customs, and are'frequentlyat war. Their most singular practice is that of slitting the under lip, so as to give them lilt; appearance of liaving two mouths. Some of tlie^e tribes disguise thcmselvjs, after the manner of the ancient Scythians; in skins of wild beasts, with the heads and limbs htted on their own. These habits they use in the cha;e, to circumvent the animals of the field.

The number of inhabitants on this coast is unknown ; but it is supposed there are not more than ten thousand, from Nootka sound to Cook's inlet, an extent of 1000 miles. The English liave a sm.all colony at Nootka sound. A colony from the United States and Canada is about to be e':tabllshed at the mouih of Columbia rivei.

TG NORTHERN ARCHIPELAGO.

Tiie principal liver that has been observed on this coasti is Columbia river, called also the Oregon, or Great River of the West, whicli enters the ocean in 4G° 18' north lat- itude. It is half a mile wide, 20 miles from its mouth.

The chief object of civilized nations in navigating this coass is to traffic with the natives for furs, which they give in exchaiK^^e for pieces of iron, nails, beads, knives, and other trifimg trinkets. The skins obtained, are those of ilie sea otter, racoon, pine marten, land beaver, mam- mot, &c.

The Russians were the first discoverers of the Nortliwest Coast of America. In i7-H, the celebrated navigator B'.?er!ng was despatched by his government to make discov- eries on the east co "st of Asia. H-.- sailed throusjli the ^rraif;, nov/ called ny his name, wh'ch part the Asiatic and Ame; lean continents. He passed down the north- v.-est coast of Anierica, as far as latitude 58" north. Mount St. Elias, and B.^e.ing's bay were so called by him. 'i'he disco; eiies; and repoits of those who accompanied him Induced many individuals to embark in the fur trade, which is now prosecuied, by several nations, with great succeis,

THE NORTHERN ARCHIPELAGO,

CONSISTING cf sevei-al groups of islands, situated ij'jtv.een tlie eastern coast of Kamtschatka in Asia, and the v^•estern coa:;t of America, may properly be noticed in rliis place.

The T; ;•: Iclands, one of the principal groups, are so called from t:ie qrcat number ot black, grey, and red fox- es, with which they abound. T'ley are all fiequented on account of their valuable furs.

The most perfect equality is said to re'gn among these Inlanders. Tln'y live in the primitive patriarchal manner ; and every person looks uj->on Ills island as a possession, the }>r()perty of which is common to all the individuals ol the r. rr.c society. In case of an attack; th^ societies mutually

fiimSH AMEiliCA. 7?

issist each other. Feasts are very common among thern, particularly when the inhabitants of one island are visited by those of another. They are i i.'jM evented as cold and in- different in most of their actions ; but easily depressed by affliction, and much addicted to suicide, putting an end to their days with great apparent insensibility. ^

BRITISH AMERICA.

THE British possessions in North America are divided into four provinces, viz. 1. Upper Canada ; 2. Lower Canada; 3. New- Brunswick ; 4. Nova-Scotia. Besides these provinces, the islands of Newfoundland, St. John's, Cape Breton, and several smaller ones in the Gulf of St. Lawrence, belong to the British dominions.

British America is superintended by an ofiicer, styled Governor General of the four British provinces in North- America, v/ho is commander in chief of all the British troops in the four provinces and the islands. Each prov- ince has a lieutenant governor, who, in the absence of tho governor general, has all the powers requisi':e to a chief magistrate, so far as respecis his particular province.

The British settleinents, in all North Anierica, accord- ing to Hassel, contain only SSij^OO inhabitants. I'his estimate is much below their real number.

We shall take a separate view of each of these provir.ces arid islands,. beginning wiih

UPPER CANADA,

o'ltualioni Bryunclarics, Extent. THE province of Upper Canada, formerly called the upper country, extends from 4-2" J'jO' to 52" aC north latitude ; and fror.i 74^ to 97° W. Ion. Its length is 1090 miles. Its breadth from nonh to south is about 52.5 miles. It is bounded so:'.,h by the Lnited States, east by Lower Canada, rorth by "iew-Brl- tain, west by Detroit river, lakes St.* Clair and Winnepco, G 2

78 UPPER CANADA.

Divisions. This province is divided into 19 coiintJeh^ which are subdivided into tov/nships, generally 12 miles long by 9 bioad.

Pace of the. Country, Soil, Iffc. This country, in general may be called level ; in many parts it is but little elevated above the lakes. There are many swamps : but where lhe*land is dry it is good, and some of it excellent. In the vicinity of Lake Superior and the Lake of the Woods, are extensive plains, destitute. of wood, excepting scattered tufts of trees. These plains are covered with luxuriant grasses aiTording subsistence to immense herds of buffa- loes.

Productions. Wheat, Indian corn, and flax, are produc- ed here in great abundance. Hops, grapes, and various sorts of berries, are the spontaneous productions of the country. , .

Iron ore has been found In great quantres, but little of it has lieen v\-rought.

Lakes. These are numerous, Tiie great lakes Ontario, Erie^ Huron, and 6'.v/';r/5r, tlirough which passes the north- ern boundary of the United States, all lie partly in this province. The other most considerable lakes are the Rice Lake, Lake Ssnicoe, Nippising, and Temiscanning.

Rivers: The liver St. Lawicrce, already described, is- sues from Ontario, in this province. Ottawas is a large river, issuing from lake Temlscannin~, and empties into the St. Lawrence. Grand River has its source in Lake St, Clie, and, passing tlirough Rice Lake, mingles with the vaiers of Ontario. The Thames, a considerable stream, :uns into Lake St. Ciafrfrom tlie eastward. Niagara riv- er, on which is the cataract, hereafter described, connects' the lakes Erie and Ontario. It is about SO miles in length and forms a part of the boundary between the United States and Canada. All the waters of this province are richly stored with Hsh.

Springs. There are several salt springs in this country, fi cm some of which sak is made.

Two miles above the Niagara Falls is a spring, which constantly emits a j^i7j-, or inflammable air, which, being ;.onfined in a pipe, will boil water in fifteen minutes.

Curicsilies. Besides the above mentioned spring, which snight, perhaps, v.-ith propriety, be mentioned under thi?

IJPPER CANADA.

rt

head, the Falls of Niagara river are the greatest and most sublime curiosity, which this or any niher country af-* fords. They are 7 or 8 miles soutli of iake Ontario. The' river here is about 742 yards wide, and pitches over a rock 150 feet in perpendicular height. The uoise produced by thiscataract is sometimes heaid iO or 30 miles. A heavy fog is constantly ascending from the falls, in which rain- bows may always be seen when the sun shines. There is sufficient space between the perpendicular rock and the column of water for people to pass in perfect safety.

Near Burlington bay is a voicano, subject to frequent e- ruptions, with a noise like thunder. The Indians sacrifice to the Bad Spirit at this place.

Towns, 'rhere are no very large towns in this province. Newark, on the west bank of Niagara river, near lake On- taiio, contains about 60 houses and two churches for Epis- copalians and Presbyterians,

Queenston, 7 miles above Newark- and Kingston, at the head of St. Lawrence, on Lake Ontario, have good har- bors, and are places of great trade.

York is situated on a fine harbor of Lake Ontario, in latitude ^S^ 4.5' north, longitude 4° w^est. It contains be- tween two and three hundred families, and is the present seat of government.

Population. In 180G the inhabitants were estimated at 30,000. chiefly emigrants from the United States

Government. The government of this province consists of a governor, legislative council, and house of assembly, chosen for four years by the people ; they meet annually in May for the purpose of legislation. I'iie province is not subject to t.\xation by the British parliament ; and ihe whole expense of the civil establishment is borne by the government of England.

V/eekly couits aie held by two justices of ijie peace through the province.- t\ district coui t is Jield every three months in which one judge presides, /another court is held by a chief justice, and two associate judges, v/ho make an annual circuit through the province. I'he people regu- late all local iTjatters in the towns, as in the United Slates,

Militia. The militia in the scver.il dittricts meet annu- ally. All male inhabitants, excepting Frii-nds and i>len- jioui^Js, from sixteen to forty-five, bear uims.

m LOWER CANAt)A.

Religion. Methodism is the prevailing religion of ijp^ per Canada. There are settled clergymen in some of the principal places ; but, fur the greater part, the country is destitute of regular religious teachers, and many of the in- habitants appear to have no religion.

History. The country was constituted a province^ by an act of the British parliament, in 1791.

LOWER CANADA,

Boundaries, Siluation, Extent. BOUNDED on the noitfe by the coast of Hudson bay and Labrador, east by Lab- rador and the Gulf of St. Lawrence, southeast and south by New- Brunswick and the United Stales, west by Upper Canada. It lies between 45 and 5ii degrees north latitude, and between 61 and 71 degrees west longitude, 800 miles long ; its average breadth 250.

jjivisions. This province is divided into six districts, which are subdivided into 21 counties, and these into townships, or parishes.

Climate. Winter continues Iiere with such severity fiom December to April, that the largest rivers are frozen over. The snow is commonly from four to six feet deep during the winter. But the air is so seiene and clear, and the inhabitants so well defended against the cold, that this sea- son is neither unhealthy nor unpleasant. The spring opens suddenly and vegetation is surpjisingly rapid. The sum- mer is delightful, except that a part of it is extremely hot.

Face of the Country. The country is generally mountain- ous and woody. The forests never attain to the luxuri- ant growih of warmer climates. Evergreens form the largest portion of their woods. The other trees are ma- ple, birch, and elm.

Pr'oductions. Notwithstanding the coldness of the climate, the soil is fertile in many parts ; producing wheat, barley, rye, and many other sorti of gram, fruits, and vegetables. The meadow grounds yield excellent grass, und feed grea*- iiumbers of CHtUe,

LOWER CANADA. Si

Lahs! ami Rivers. The principal of these have aheady been mentioned The St. Lawrence passes through this province, and falls into the ocean by a mouth 90 miles broad, in which is the island Anticosti.

PcJ>:('a:wn. The province of Lower Canada contained, in 17S1', 113,0I2souls. In iSOo, 150,000 ; and in 1811, they were estimated ac between 200,000 and 300,000.

Rfli^^lofi. Nine tenths of the inhabitants of Lower Can- ada arc Romaii Carliolics ; the rest are Episcopalians, Prcsbyteii.ins, and a few of almost every sect of Christians.

Manncrj and Customs. These are coi'isiderably tinctured with French gaiety and urbanity. Tlie Fiench women in Lower Canada can generally read and write, and are tlius superior to the men ; but both are sunk in ignoiance aad SLi:)o:sti:ion, and blmdly devoted to their priests. Tl:e French language is spc^ken, except by seitlers from Great Britain and the United States.

To'-cviis. QurB; c is tiie capital of this province, and of all British America, being the residence of the governor- general It is situated ai the conllnence of the St Law- rence and St. Charles or Little river, '620 miles from the sea. It contained, in 1806, 15,000 inhabitants, two thirds •of whom were French. A large garrison is supported here. The houses are commonly built <jf stone, small, ugly, and In- convenient. The market is well supplied, and the little carts are frequently drawn by dogs. T.he river he.re is four or five leagues broad, a:id the haven, opposite the tovv'n, is safe and commodiou"). This city was taken !jy the British in 1751, when general Wolfe, wlio commanded the army of the besiegers, lost his life. In December, 1775 it was at- tacked by the Aiiierican army, under the brave general Montgomery, who .vas slain, and his army repulsed.

Llontieal the second city in rank, stands on an island in the river St. Lawrence, 170 miles above Quebec, and .'i08 north by west of Boston. It contained in 1809, 16,000 inhabitants.

M:mufactuyes and Commerce. Tne exports consist of wheat. Hour, biscuit, flax-seed, lumber, fish, potash, oil, ginseng, an'l other medicinal roots and herbs, but chiefly of furs, and peltries. The imports are t am, brandy, mo- lasses, coffee, sugar, wines, tobacco, salt, provisions for the troops, and manufactured cloths from Ln.elauoh

82 GAPE BRETON.

Governmeni. The same as that of Upper Canada.

H'utory This country was discovered by the English ii) li97, and settled by the French in 1608, who kept pos- session of it till 1760, when it was taken by the British, and confirmed to the crown of England by the treaty el' Paris, in 1763.

ISLAND GF CAPE BRETON.

THIS Island, (or rather collection of islands, which i:_' so contiguous that lliey are usually denominated but one; is anneiiJ lo, ;iTid forms a part of, the province of Lowe.r Canada. It lie^ between 4-5^ 23' and 4-7^ 2' north lati- tude, and between 13 and 15° east longitude from Phila- delphia, 109 miles long, and from 20 to St broad. It is separated fiom Nova Scotia by a narrow strait, called tlje Gut of Canso, whicli is the communication betv^een llie Atlantic ocean and the gulf of St. Lav, rence.

The climate here is very cold ; owing, probably, in some degree, to the prodigious number of Jakes, that cover half the island, and remain frozen a long time ; and also to tlie forests that totally intercept the rays of the snn. The ef- fect of the sun is likewise diminished by almost perpetual clouds. The surface of the country, except in tlie hilly parts, has but little solijity. There are some toleiabl.e pastures ; and it abounds in hard wood, beech, birch, ma- ple, and fir.

On this island are about 3000 inhabitants, two thirds of whom are French Acadians.

The government of the island is in the hands of a lieu- tenant governor and council, who are appointed by the king.

'1 he chief towns are Sidney and Louisburg ; the form- er of which is the capital, .ind the latter has the best harbor in the island. Louisbuig may be considered as the key to Canada, and the valuable fishery in its neigh- borhood depends for its protection on the possession ol this place.

NEW-BRUNSWICK. 83

T+iere is a very extensive coal mine in this island, iVom which about 6000 chaldrons are annually taken. There is an inconsiderable trade in peltiicb and lurs.

This island was discovered at a very early period, by the Fieach, and was resorted to by a few fishermen ; but was not taken formal possession of, till 171 3. The French kept it till \li5, when it was captured by the New-Eng- land militia, under general W. Pcpperell, and confirmed vo Great-Britain by the treaty of 1 763.

NEW-BRUNSWICK

IS bounded on the west by the province of Maine, north by Lower Canada, easterly by the gulf of St. Lawrence, •outheast and south by Nova Scotia and the biy of Fundy. Till the year 17B4-, it formed a part of the province of Nova-Scotia, when it was erected into a separate govern- ment. It lies between 45 and 4-8 degrees norlh latitude, and between 7 and 12 degrees east longitude.

The number of inhabitants is about 40,000.

The coast of this province is indented with numerotis bays and harbors. The principal is the bay of Fundy, be- tween New Brunswick and Nova-Scotia, remarkable for the rise of its tide, which is scmetinies more than 60 feet perpendicular height. This bay extends 50 leagues into tJie country. Chenigto bay is the northern extieniity of Fundy bay ; Passamaquoddy bay borders (>n Maine. Chaleur b.iy is a portion ot the gulf of St. Lawrence, flowing between th's province on the south and Lower Canada on the north.

St. .Tolm's is ihc principal river in this province, falling into the bay of Fundy, after a course of nearly 350 miles.

It is navigable for sloops 60 miles, and for boats 200. Thib noble river and its branches water and enrich a large tract (.("excellent country, which is settled, and im- proving. The foiestb consist of spruce, pine, hemlock, beech, birch, ma{;le, ar.d some ash. The pines on this fiver are the largest in all British America, and afford a !^reat ^.uppb; of mads for the English navy.

34- NOVA-SCOTIA.

St. Croix river falls into Passamaqiioddy bay, and is part of the boundary between New-Brunswick and Maine.

Merrimichi river falls into a bay of the same name on the northeast coast of New-Brunswick. A small distance from its estuary it divides into two branches, and runs through a fertile intervale. There is a cod and salmon fishery at the confluence of this river and the bay.

Among \he lakes of this province, which are numerous, is Grand lake, near St. John's river, 30 miles long, 8 or 10 wide, and in some places, 40 fathoms deep.

The city of St. John, situated on high land, at the mouth of the river St. John, is the capital of this province. The streets are spacious and regular. It has upwards of 3000 inhabitants, and many well built houses, a handsome church and city hall.

Frederictown, the preseftt seat of government; is 80 miles up the river St. John, at the head of sloop naviga- tion, and contains about ,500 inhabitants. In the vicinity of this town, several valuable tracts of land are appropri- ated for the support of a college.

NOVA-SCOTIA

LIES between 43 and 13 degrees north latitude and between S and 11 degrees east longitude. Ejrcept a nar- row tract, which borders on New- Brunswick to the norih- vvebi, it is surrounded, on all sides, by difFeient portions of the Atlantic ocean. It is about 300 miles long, and 154' broad.

The climate of the country is unpleasant; the atmo- sphere being clouded with thick fog during a great part cl the year, and the weather, for four or five m.onths being intensely cold. The soil in general is thin and barren, though not uniformly so. A great part of the country is covered with wood.

This province is accommodated wiih many spacious liarbors and bays. Tlic bay of Fundy, already mcn- rv^nedj ivashcs its northwcitern 5!v:.;C. Chebucto lay if

NOVA-SCOTIA. 85

"oh the southeast, at the head of which Is situated the town of Halifax, the capital of the province.

The face of the country is diversified with numerous lakes and rivers. Of the latter, that of. Annapolis is the most considerable, and is navigable 1.5 miles for ships of 100 tons, Salmon river, which empties into Chedabucto bay, is remarkable for its fisheries.

Nova Scotia exhibits an unfavorable appearance to the eye of a stranger ; but the gradual improvements in hus- bandry afford reasonable expectation, that it will become a flourishing colony.

Coals, lime stone, plaster of Paris, and iron ore are dug out of the earth in Nova-Scotia.

Halifax, the capital of this province, is delightfully- situated on the west side of Chebucto bay, commodious for fishing, and has a fine harbor, lOQO houses, and 8000 inhabitants. The other towns are Annapolis on the east side of the bay of Fundy, v.hich has one of the finest har- bors in America ; and Shelburne, on the south of the pen- insula, bijilt by emigrants from the United States.

The whole population of Nova- Scotia amounts to be-» iween 70,000 and 80,000. The great body of the peo- ple are of English origin ; after which the Scotch and Crish are most numerous.

The exports from Great Britain to this country are chiefly articles of clothing, and rigging for ships. The imports are timber, and the produce of the fisheries.

History, Notwithstanding the forbidding appearance cf this country, it was here that some of the first European setlements were made. The first grant of lands in it was given by James I. to his secretary. Sir William Alexander, from whom it had the name of Nova Scotia, or New- Scotland. It has since frequently changed hands, from- r one private proprietor to another, and from the French to the English nation, alternately. It was confirmed to the English in 171.'?. Three hundred families were trans- ported here in 1 749 at the charge of the governmentj v/ho built and settled the town of Halifax,

H

m ISLAND OF ST. JOHN,

ISLAND OF ST. JOHN.

THIS Island lies In the gulf of St. Lawrence, near the northern coast of the province of Nova- Scotia, and is about 100 miles long, and from 10 to 35 broad. It has several fine rivers, a rich soil, and is pleasantly situated. Char- toTTETOWN is its principal town, and is the residence of the lieutenant governor, who is the chief officer on the island. The number of inhabitants is t;bout 5000. The island produces corn, and quantities of beef and pork. The French inhabitants, amounting to about 4000, sur- rendered, in 1 745, to the British arms. It is attached to the government of Nova-Scotia.

NEWFOUNDLAND ISLAND

IS situated east of the gulf of St. Lawrence, between 4.6° 45' and 52° 31' of north latitude, and between 15° 28' and 22° 37' east longitude ; separated fi^om Labrador by the Straits of Belleisle, and from Canada, by the bay of St. Lawrence ; being 381 miles long, and from 40 to 287 miles broad. The coasts are very subject to fogs, attended with almost continual storms of snow and sleet, the sky being usually overcast. From the soil of this land, the JJritish reap no great advantage, for the cold is long con- tinued and severe ; and the summer heat, though violent, warms it not enough to produce any thing valuable ; the soil, at least in those parts of the island which have been explored, being rocky and barren. It is watered by seve- ral rivers, and has many large and good harbors.

The chief tov/ns in Newfoundlan«l are Placentia, Bona- vista, and St. John's.

The population in 1805 was 24,922. The Indians are considerably numerous.

The admiral on the coast is the governor of the island, under the governor general of the British provinces.

BERMUDA ISLANDS. St

The great lishery on the banks of Newfoundland begins about tiie iOth of May, and continues till the end ot Sep- tember. The numbers of cod, both on the great bank and the lesser ones, which lie east and south of this island, are inconceivable. Several other species oi tish are also caught here in abundance The fishery is computed to yield about 300,000/. a year, from the cod sold in Catho- lic countries.

This island, after various disputes with the Frencli, was- entirely ceded to the English, iu 171.3 ; The Frcncli hav- ing permission to dry their nets on the southern shores ;- and, in 176:5, they were permitted to fish in the Gulf ot" St. Lav.Tence, on the condition that they should not ap- proach within three leagues of any coast belonging to Eng- land. By the last treaty, the French are to enjoy the fisheries on the north and we^^t coasts of the island ; and the United States are allowed the same privileges iu fish- ing, as before their independence. Great Britain and the,^ United States employ annually not less than 3000 sail of "'^ small craft in this fishery.

The other islands of note, in the Gulf of St. Lawrence, are Anticosti, near the mouth of St. Lawrence, 126 miles long, and 32 broad, uninhabited ; the Magdales Isles, in 12° 29' east longitude, and between 47 and 80°* north latitude, inhabited by a few fishermen ; and Isle Perce E, about 15 miles south of Cape Gaspre. It is a perpendicular rock, and is pierced with two natural arches, through which the sta flows. One of these aiches is suf- fkientiyhigh to admit a large boat to pass freely thiough it.

THE EERMUDAS, OR SOMMERS ISLANDS,

BELONG mdre pTOperly to North-America, than ta the V'V'est-Indies. They are about equally distant from the West-Indies and Nova- Scotia, and ilOO leagues from the coast of Carolina, lying in 23 degrees north latitude, and about 1 1 degrees of east longitude iTom Philadelphia. TJiey received their first name from John Bermudas, a

88 UNITED STATES.

Spaniard, their first discoverer ; and are called SoT*mer&. Island's, from Sir Georgg Sommers, who was shipwrecked on their rocks, in 1609, on his passage to Virginia. The "principal island is 16 miles long, and 1 or 2 broad ; rocky find uneven, and the roads almost impassable. The air is wholesome ; a continual spring prevails, and most of the productions of the West-Indies are here cultivated. Fif- teen or twenty thousand people are collected on this small,, spot, two thirds of whom are blacks.

INDEPENDENT AMERICA,

OR THE UNITED STATES.

Boundaries. ALL the territories, now under the Fede* ral Government of the United States, are here included; under the general head of Inoependent America. These territories are bounded on the north by British America ; east by New-Brunswick and the Atlantic ocean ; sou:h by Florida and the Gulf of Mexico ; v/est by New-Mexico, and a ridge of mountaios, generally denominated the Shining Mountains, which divide the western waters of the Missisippi from those that flow westward into the Pacifie ocean. ,/

Situation and Extent. This country lies between 28 and 50 degrees north latitude, and between 9 degrees east and 14 degrees west longitude. Its extreme length, from cast to west, is upwards of 2000 miles, and its greatest breadth about 1500. It contains about 2^000,000 square miles, and, excepting the Russian empire, is the largest territory on the earth, whose inhabitants live under cne general government.

Divisions and Names. Independent America consists of levenieen States, ^nd four territorial Governments, exclusive of l^ouisiana. Each state has a government of its own, inde- pendent of every other state ; and all are united under one general government, and thus form a grand national re- public.

The states and territorial governments may be classed in four grand divisions, called Northern, Tifiddk, Southerrty

UNITED STATES. 89

and JVesfern States. Though these divisions are merely nominal, and may be liable to some objections ; yet the convenience of using the appellations northern^ middk, south- ern, and 'U)cstern, in writing and conversation, is considered as a sufficient reason for adopting this classification.

The first division, or Northern States, is the territory, which, in 1641, received the nam^e of Nenu- England, and comprehends District of Maine, (belonging Massachusetts (Proper)

to Massachusetts) Rhode-Island,

New- Hampshire, Connecticut.

Vermont,-

The second division, or Middle States, comprehends New-York, Ohio,

New-Jersey, Michigan Territory,.

Pennsylvania,. Indiana Territory,

Delaware, Illinois Territory.

Maryland.

The third division, or Southern States, consists oi; Columbia Territory,* Tennessee,

Virginia, South-Carolina, *

Kentucky, Georgia,

North-Carolina, Missisippl Territory.

The fourth or Western division is Louisiana. f

This division of the United States is already divided into the nev/ state of Louisiana, and several territorial govern- ments ; is nearly equal in extent to all the rest of the U- nited States ; and will,, probably, at no very distant period, be divided into several independent slates.

Under the present head, we shall confine our remarks to those topics, which are common to all the states and ter- ritories, reserving all local objects, such as Bays, Lakes, Rivers, Mountains, &c. to be noticed in their appropriate divisions.

Climate. The climate of the United States Is subject to great extremes of heat and cold, and to frequent and sud- den changes of the weather, and temperature of the air.

•This territory lies partly in the MlddU and p.utlv in \\\zSouthirn States.

f AH the States west of the Allegany mountain?, may more prcpc* Jy be denominated Weitern StaUi,

H 2

m UNITED STATES.

The weather is less variable In the northern than In th* :,nut]iern states ; frosts at the nortli generally come on i:i October ; severe cold commences in December and lasts till March. Daring this time, the ponds and fresh water rivers are frozen over. The climate west of the Allega- ny mountains, differs materially from that on the eastern side, in the temperature of the air, and in the quantity of snow and rain which falls every year. The air is seldom so cold or so hot by several degrees, as on the eastern side of the mountains, in the same latitudes.

Seasons. Autumn is the finest season of the year, in the United States ; th3 temperature of the air is then most a- greeable and the weather is serene and settled. In New- England winter lasts near half the year ; in the Southern States it is milder, and continues not more than three or four months. In spring the weather is most variable, a fwarm and pleasant day being often succeeded by anothei- that is cold and stormy.

Face of the Country. The territories of the United State-s are happily variegated with mountains and plains, hills and valleys. Some parts are rocky, particularly the north- ern stales, and the mountainous tract running southwest- erly from Hudson rivei to Georgia. In the southern stales, the country between the Atlantic ocean and the mountains, a tract from 60 to 100 miles broad, is level, and entirely free of stone. Between the mountains and the Missisippi, are vast level meadows, and the borders of that river aie either spacious low lands^ annually overflowed, or con- tinued forests. The newly acquired tract of Louisiana contains some of the most pleasant and fertile spots on the face of the globe.

Botany. The'natural history of the United States is in its infancy. Th.e vegetable productions have not yet been well desciibed by any author, in a work professedly for that purpose.

No country affordsa greater variety of indigenous plants, many of? which are distinguished for stately growth and beauty. It is particularly rich in trees and shrubs, many of them differing in genus or species, from those in the old world. In the woods are several new species of oak, wal- nut, poplar, and maple. The sugar maple abounds in ma- ny parts of the United States, valuable on account of its

UNITED STATES. 91

saccharine juice yielded by tapping, which, by boiling and relinirig, affords a wholesome and palatable sugar, Ht for all domestic uses. In the southern states, the magnolia rises to a magnihcence of bulk, which renders it the pride ef the forest, while its flowers perfume the air ; and the wonds afford the richest variety of flowering shrubs and beautiful trees. New-England produces spontaneously an almost infinite number of plants and herbs, useful for medicinal purposes. Wild fruits, and nuts of almost every description, enrich the counuy from Maine to. Geuigia.

/}orkul:ure and Cuh'ii<ated Vegetables. In agriculture, the Americans are well sk'lled, and are eager to adopt the ad- vantages of English experience. The immortal Washing- ton was himself an excellent practical farmer ; and it i& computed that at least three parts in four of the inhabit- ants of the United States are employed in agriculture. This fiee and vigorous yeomanry^ may well be regarded as the chief gloiy of any state ; and commerce will import suffi- cient opulence to enable them to promote every possible improvement.* Agriculture flourishes most in New-En- gland, Nev,'-York, and Pennsylvania ; but is making rapid advances in all the other states. Among the numerous products, are wheat, rye. barley, buck wheat, oats, beans, pease, and maize, or Indian-corn, which is a native grain.

In the southern states, rice is cultivated, and is found to succeed on the banks of the Ohio. The poiatoe is a na- tive and valuable root, wliich grows in all the states. H<ps (another native plant) are also cultivated. Coitnn (which ha.-5 taken p.'ace of indigo) and tobacco are im.poitant pro- ducts of the southern states. 0;chards are favorite ob- jects, and cider is the common drink of New-England, .f\pp]es, pears, peaches, phinjs, &c are every where abimd- ant. The native siiawberry is improved by cultivation, and is much superior to the exotic. The native giape is propagated with great ease. Its growth is hixunant, overspreading the highest trees in tl'e forest. With propo cr cultivation, it would afford an ample supply oi wines, in the northern as well as southern states.

Besides mo.-,t of the grapes of Europe, which are here culiivated, theie is a great variety of others iouiid grow-

* P^^RE&TON,

92

UNITED aXATES.

ing in their native soils and situations, many of which have not been described hy any boianical writers.

Zoology. The zoology of the United States does not materially differ from that of North- America in general. America contains, at least, one half, and tlie territory of the United States more than one fourth of the species of quadrupeds in the kuov/n world. Some of them are pe- cuhar to this continent, and others are common to both continents. Our information on this, subject is not exten- sive It is probable that some of our quadrupeds are ut- ' terly unknown ; others are known only by the common reports of hunters, and cannot be described.

The following catalogue, it is believed, Contains most of the wild quadrupeds of North America. Mammoth Weasel Field Mouse

Bison Ermine Bat

Moose Marten Ground Mouse

Cniibou Mink Wood Rat

Red Deer Oiter American Rat

Faiiow Deep Fisher Shrew Mouse

Roe Skunk Purple Mole

Bear Opossum Black Mole

Wolverene Woodchuck Water Rat

Wolf Urchin Beaver

Fox Hare Musquash

Cat-imount Racoon Morse

Saliow Cougar Fox Squirrel Seal

Grev Cougar Grey Squirrel Maniti

M'' r lain Cat Red Squirrel Sapi<jou

Lynx Stiiped Squirrel Sagoin

Kincajou Flying oquirrei

The Wolf, Fox, Weasel, Ermine, Olter, Flying Squir- lel, Bat, and W^ater Rat, are of the same species with the Europenn animals of the same names.

The Faiiow Deer, Grey Fox, Marten, Otter, Opossum, Woodchuck, flare, some of the Squirrels, and the Beaver, have been tamed. Probably most of these, and some oth- ers, might be perfectly domesticated. !t has been observ- ed of our Wild animals, in general, that they are not of so 3avage a nature as those of Europe

Mammoth. This name has been given to an unknoAV# animal, whose bones are found in the noribcrp parts of both

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ifce o!d and new world. From the form of their teeth, they are said to be carnivorous. Like the elephant, they were armed with tusks of ivory ; but they obviously differ from the elephant in size, their bones proving them to have bt-( n live or six times as large. These enormous bones are found in several parts of North-America, particularly about the salt licks, or springs, near the Ohio river.

Bird:. The birds of the United States liave been ar- ranc^ed, by naturalists, into twelve classes ; the number cf birds in all the classes amount to 271- They geneially exceed the birds of Europe in the beauty of their plumage, but are inferior in the melody of their notes.

The middle states, including Virginia, appear to be the climates in North-America, where the greatest number and variety of birds of passage celebrate their nuptials, af- ter which they annually return to more southern regions. Most of our birds, are birds of passage from the southwards. The eigle, the pheasant, grouse, and partridge of Penn- sylvania, several species of woodpeckers, the crow, blue jay, robin, marsh wren, several species of sparrows, or snow birds, and the swallow, are perhaps nearly all the land birds that continue the year round to the northward of Virginia.

The swan i<; the largest ortiis aquatic tribe of birds, which is seen in this country. One of them has been known to weigh thirty-six pounds, and to be si.x feet in length from tlie bill to the feet, wlicn stretched. It makes a sound resembling that of a trumpet, both >;^vhen in the wafer and en the wing.

The Canada Gonse is a bird of passage and gregarious.. The offspring of the Canadian and common goose are mongrels, and reckoned more valuable than either of uu-- mixed biood.

The Quail, or Parti idge, is a bird peculiar to America.. The partridge of New- England is the pheasan of Penn- sylvania, but is miscalled in both places. It is a speciev. of the Grous. Neither the Pheasant, Partridge, nor Quail- is found in America.

The Wakon bird, which probably is of the same specie-, as the Bird of Paradise, receives its name from the idea; th^ Indians Uava of its superior excellence ; tho Wakpx-

94 tJNITED STATES.

Bird being, in iheir language, the Bird of the Great Spirit. Its tail is composed of four or five feathers, which are three times as long as its body, and which are beautifully shaded with green and purple. It carries this fine length cf plumage in the same manner as the peacock does his, but it is not known whether, like him, it ever raises it to an erect position.

Reptiles. Among the amphlbkus reptiles, are several turtles, or tortoises, some of which are esteemed delic- ious food. Ql loads, frogs ^ and lizards, there are likewise many species. Of this latter class of reptiles, is the Alliga- tor, or American Crocodile, a- terrible creature, of prodig- ious strength, activity, and swiftness in the water. They are from six to tweniy-four f*et in length ; their bodiesj as large as that of a horse, covered with horny plates or scales, said to be impenetrable to a rifle ball, except about the head and fore legs. They make a frightful appear- ance, and at certain seasons, a most hideous roar, resem- bling distant thunder. They are oviparous, and lay from one to two hundred eggs in a nest. Their principal fo^d is fish, but they devour dogs and hogs. The old ieed on the young alligators, till they get so large that they can- not make a prey of them. In South- America, the carrion vulture destroys multitudes of young alligators, which would otherwise render the country uninhabitable.

It is supposed there arc about forty different kinds of serpents in North-America, among which the Rattle snake is probably rlit largest. Their rattles consist of several ar- ticulatedjCrustaceous bags, forming their tails, which when they move, make a rattling noise, giving warning of their approach. They are supposed to have the power of fas- cination in an eminent degree ; and charm birds, rabits, and squirrels in such a manner, that they lose the power of resistance, and suffer themselves to be devoured. Their bite is very poisonous, but not incurable.

Tlie Coach-Whip, Glass, and Joint snakes, are great curiosities. The latter, when struck, breaks-like a pipe-stem- v/ithout producing a tincture of blood.

The snakes are not so numerous nor so venomous in the northern, as in the southern states ; in the latter however, the inhabitants are furnislaed with a much greater variety

UNITED STATES. §5

of plants and herbs, which afford immediate relief to per- sons bitten by those poisonous creatures. It is an obser-' vation worthy of grateful remembrance, that wherever venomous animals are found, the God of nature has kind- ly provided sufficient antidotes against their poison.

Fish. Upwards of eighty different kinds of fish have been enumerated in the waters of North-America. Of these the Whale is the largest ; some of them, in the north- ern seas, being ninety feet in length. They were former- ly found in plenty along the coast of the United States, but, at present are scarce. That species of Whales, call- ed the Beluga, is found principally in the gujf of St. Lawrence and Hudson Bay. Beneath the skin of the Beluga, may be felt the bones of five fingers, which termi- nate at the edge of the fin, in five very sensible projections.

The Lamprey frequents most of the rivers in the New- England states. After the spawning season is over, and the young fry have gone down into the sea, the old fish at- tach themselves to the roots and limbs of trees, which have fallen into the water, and there perish. A mortifi- cation begins at the tail, and proceeds upwards to the vi- tal parts.

The Ink, or Cuttle Fish, is a great curiosity. It is fur- nished with a cyst of black liquor, which, when emitted, renders the water like a thick, black cloud in the eyes of its pursuer ; and thus the fish escapes. The whalemen call these fish Squids.

Insects. Naturalists have enumerated about eighty spe- cies of insects and vermes in North- America, many of them peculiar to the continent. The most curious of these is the Sea Anemone, Sea Nettle, or Animal Flower. They are found attaclied to the sides of rocks, over which the tide flows. They appear like flowers of different sizes, with six expanded leaves ; and have the power of assum- ing different shape?, as of a full blov/n anemone, or of a large rose or poppy. When the largest are expanded, they are five or six inches in circumference ; and, when touch- ed, they contract themselves When muscles are offered them they seize and conduct them to their mouths in the centre of the flower, and swallow them. They reproduce themselves in an t^stonishing manner ; when cut into sev-

m UNITEB STATES.

several piiRccs, each piece becomes a complete crea- ture.*

Commerce and Manufactures, No country in the world -enjoys greater advantages for Internal and foreign com- merce than the United States, by means of the cun>erous rivers and lakes. that inte|-sect the country and the ex- cellent harbors and bays which indent the sea coast. Ca- nals are opened, ati<^ many more might be opened, to fa- cilitate inland navigation ; and the whole country will probably soon be chequered into islands and peninsulas.

The most considerable manufactures, are tanned leather and dressed skins ; various works in iron and wood ; ca- bles, sail cloth, and cordage; bricks, tiles, and pottery ; paper, hats, sn<*ff, gunpowder j some utensils in copper, brass, and tin ; clocks, and mathematical instruments ; coarse cloths, cottons and linens for domestic uses, and some for exportation ; and maple sugar.

The principal articles of exportation will be enumerat- ed in the accounts of the several states individually.

The commerce of the United States is chiefly carried on with Great-Britain and her colonies, with Russia, France, Spain, Portugal, Turkey, tlie East- Indies, &c. In 1799, 1 900, 1801, and 1802, the exports of the United States fluctuated from 68 to 9'6 millions of dollars. Tlie importations of manufactures from the British dominions, were little less than «7,000,000 dollars. In 1802, the im- ported manufactur*"^ from all other countries, were less than 14,000,000 i The wines, teas, salt, distilled

spirits, and other m... ctured produce, from places not British, amounted pn,^. y to 30,000,000 dollars, and the like manufactured articles from British dominions were probably worth 3,000,000 dollars. The annual value of all the articles manpfactured, it appears from an estimate made by authority in 1810, considerably exceeds 120 millions of dollars, and this value is rapidly increas- ing. Thf» trade to China is considerable, and increas- irg. Th ■ total amount of imports into the United States, in 1810, is stated by Mr.- Blodget, at 54',000,000 dollars ; and of the exports, at 52,200,000 dollars s tons of shipping, l,,'J50,28l ; of which 4^)3,044! tons, or

* For more complete information of the quadrupeds, birds, fish, insect*, &c. of North-America, the reader is referred to the Americai) Universal Geography

UNITED STATES. «7

mors than^one third is owned by Massachusetts. Mr. Blodget estimates the number of acres of improved land io the United is: ates, at -lO.QSO.OOO i horses, J 4,()00,()00 ; horned cattle, ■ 5,660,000 ; banks, S>5 ; bank capitals, 54.000,000 dollars ; custom house bonds, 9,(i()0,00(i dol- lars ; total valuation of the United Stales, li, 5 10,000,000 dollars.

Populalton. According to the census of 1800, the num- ber of inhabitants in the several states was 5,305,666 ; of whom y93,651 were slaves According to ihe census of 1810, the whole number of inhabitants was 7,'i^<9,903, of whom 1,1 9 1, 364 were slaves. This population is made up of almost all nations, languages, and religions, which Europe can furnish ; but much the greater part are de- scended from the English.

Language. The English language is the prevailing lan- guage in the United States ; and in this language all bu- siness is transacted, and public records kept. Excepting a few provincial con options, it is spoken with great puri- ty in i\ew-b'ngland, by all classes of peop.e. In the mid- dle and southern states, the great influx of foieigntrs has produced many corruptions, especially in pronunciation. There arq some Dutch, French, Germans, Swedes, and Jews, who retain, in a greater or less degiee, their native language, in which they perform their public worship, and converse with each oilier.

Religion The constitution of the United States prohib- its the enycting of any laws for the establishment of le- hgion, or controlling the free exercise of it. Religious lib- erty is also a fundamental principle in the constitutions of the individual slates. Its pubUc teachers are maintained by equal taxes on property, by pew rents, marriage and burial fees, voluntary contributions, &c.

The following denomiilations of Christians are found in the United States :

Congregationalists Baptists

Presbyterians Quakers, or Friends

Episcopalians Methodists

Dutch Reformed Church Roman Catholics 1

9$

.UNITED STATED.

German Lutherans German Calvinists, or Pres- byterians Moravians

Tunkers Universalists Mennonists and Shakers

There are, probably, some others, whose numbers arc comparatively small.*

State of Liter alure. There are In the United States 30 colleges ; thr^pr four of them, however, exist only on paper ; and abdut 100 academies. A plan has been con- templated for establishing, under the auspices of Congress, a National University, at the seat of governnient. .

Government. The government of the United States is vested in a President and Congress, which consists of two legislative bodies, called a senate and house of represent- atives. The President is chosen for four years. The senate consists of two senators from each state, chosen every six years by the state legislatures. In this body the vice president of the United States presides, ex officio. The house of representatives is elected by the people, eve- ry two years, and apportioned in such a manner, that ev- ery state shall have, at least, one representative ; but that the number of representatives shall not exceed one for every 35,000 inhabitants.

By the census of 1810 the representatives to congress were apportioned among the states as follows ;

New-Hampshire	6	Indiana Territory	1
Vermont	6	Maryland	9
Massachusetts	20	Virginia	23
Rhode-Island	2	Kentucky	10
Connecticut	7	Tennessee	G
New-York	27	Worth-Carolina	13
New-Jersey	6	South-Carolina	9
Pennsylvania	23	Georgia	6
Delaware	2	Louisiana	1
Ohio	6	Missisippi Territory	1

* For a particular account of these several religious sects, the read- er is referred to Miss H. Adams's « View of Religions,"

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The legislative power is vested in the congress, and the executive is lodged with the president, or in the vice- prCbident, who supplies his place in any emergency. The president has the command of the army and navy, and has the power of pardoning offences, except in cases of impeachment. He can make treaties, and appoint am- bassadors, with the consent of two thirds of the senate.

The judicial power is lodged in one supresae court, and such inferior courts as the congress may ordain ; the jadges hold their offices during good behavior.

Each state has its peculiar government, commonly con- vsisting of a governor, and general asbembly, annually chosen. The constitutions of the individual states aie, with a few variations, similar to that of the United States.

Seat of Government. The city of Washington in the ter- ritory of Columbia, was ceded by the states of Virginia and Maryland, to the United States, and by Congress established as the seat of the government. It stands at the junction of the rivers Potowmac and Eastern Branch, in lat y8 36 N. extending nearly four miles up each, and in- cluding a tract of territory, which, in point of convenience, salubrity, and beauty, is not exceeded by any in America.

'I'he situation of this metropolis, is upon the great post road, about equally distant from the northern and southern extremities of the United States ; upon the best naviga- tion, and in the midst of a commercial territory, immense- ly rich, and commanding extensive internal resources. The public offices of the government were established herein 1800. - '

Revenue and Expenditure, The revenue of the United States is raised from duties on the tonnage of vessels en- tered in the various sea-ports, and on imported goods, wares, and merchandize. The revenue for the year 1805, was 14.,589,369 dollars j in 1808, 10,348,000 dollars; in 1809, 6,5'27,000 dollars ; in 1810, according to the es- timate of the secretary, about 12,000,000 dollars ; the expenditures for the year ending 30th September, 1810, amounted to 8,174,358 dollars.

The total receipts into the treasury of the United Stares from the 4th of March, 1789, to December 31st, 1809, a- owunted to 210,827,937 dpllars, 54 cents, vi^.

iOO UNITED STATES.

Dollars. Ceats,

From Customs * 171,278,734.09

Internal revenue 6,445,373 90

Direct tax 1,736 266 28

Public lands 3,972,134 34

Miscellaneous 5,574,662 90

Loans 21,820,765 82

Total 210,827,937 '34

The largest amount in any single year was, in 180S» 17.060,661 dollars, 93 cents ; in 1809, the amount was only 7,773,473 dollars. 12 cents.

Public Debt. The amount of the public debt at the com- mencement off the present government, 1789, was about 75,000,000 dollars ; in 1 8 lOjt was reduced to 53,172 aOQ dollars, 32 cents. It has since been rapidly increasing.

Mint. A national mint v/as established in 1791. It is provided by law that the purity and intrinsic value of silver shall be equal to that of Spain ; and of the gold coins to that of the strictest European nations. T he gov- ernment of the United States derives no profit from the coinage. The value of the coins striick at the mint, dur- ing the year 1804, was 371,827 dollars, 94 cents. In 1807> 2,73lj345 pieces of coin, gold, silver, and copperji were struck, at the United States mint, amounting to 1,044.595 dollars, 9! cents.

Army. The United States have no standing army, sucl^ an establishment being deemed inconsistent with a repub- lican gov6rnmenCi" The following is the return of the mil- itary force of the states and territories, made to the secre-. tary at war, in 1807, arranged in the order of their rela- tive strength.

Georgia 18,65ii

Vermont 1 6,436

Pennsylvania 94,521

IMew-York 71',.494

Virginia 69,762

Massachusetts 62,586

North-Carolina 44,^56

Souih-Carolina 32,642

Tennessee 16,102

Ohio 15,137

Rhode-Island 5.245

Mi&sisippi Territory 1,1^8

Kentucky 32,235 j Indiana ! erritory 2,931

Kew-Jersey 30,885 | District of Columbia 1,910

New Hampshire 22,786 Orleans Territojy 1,44?

Ccanecticut 20,783 j Michigan Territciy 1.038

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The militia of the states and territories, according to the returns made to the secretary ar war, in 1808, amount- ed to 636,33G men, giving an increase of 7I>338, for one year.

A small military force was maintained before the pres- ent war, for the support of public order, and the defence of the frontiers, and fortresses on the sea coast.

Navy. The navy of the United States commenced Its existence in 1797, and increased rapidly till 1800; since which time it has been reduced, and, in 1810, consisted only of 19 vessels of war, of which 0 were frigates, the whole carrying 502 guns. Provision has been made by congress, in 181^, for increasing the navy, and several T'i's are now building.

History. The time and manner of the original settle- ments of the United States, have been mentioned undei the head of North- America. ['hey continued subject to Great-Britain, as colonies of that kingdom, till the I'ourth # OF July, 1776; which day may be called the epoch of their existence, as an independent naiion

The attempts of the British parliament to raise a reve- mue in the colonies, without their consent, occasioned the war, which separated them from Great Britain. The fol- lowing brief history of this war, and the causes which \q<X to it, is thought of sufficient importance to have a place in this work.

The first attempt of consequence was the famous Stamp Act, March, 176:5 By this, the Americans were ob' iged to make use of stamped paper for all notes, bonds, and oth- er legal instruments ; on whicJi paper, a duty was to be paid. This act occasioned such general uneasiness in A- merica, that the parliament thought proper to repeal it, the year after it was made.-

The next year, 1767 the Tea Act was framed; by' which a heavy duty was laid upon tea, glass, paper, and many other articles, which were much used in America. This threw the colonies into confusion, and excited sucli resentment among the people, that the par lament, three years after, took off three fourths of the duty. But it was

19

W2 UNITED STATES.

.■sill] disagreeable to the Americans, who entered Into reso- 1 aliens not to import or consume British manufactures.

In 1773, the people of Boston, wiio were determined not to pay duties on tea, employed some persons to go In dis- guise on board sflme ships loaded with tea, belonging to the East-India company, which lay in the harbor, and to throw the tea overboard. In other parts of America, vio- lent opposition was made to British taxation. This oppo- sition enkindled the resentment of the British parliament, which they expressed the next year, 177'i> by shutting the port of Boston, which ruined the trade of that flounsliing town. This act wjls followed by otliers, by which the con- stitution of Massachusetts was new modelled, and the lib- erties of the people infringed*

These rash and cruel measures gave great and universal alarm to the Americans. General Gage was sent to Bos- ton to enforce the new laws ; but he was received with > coldness, and opposed with spirit in the execution of his commission. The assemblies of Americans remonstrated and petitioned. Contributions of money and provisions, from every quarter, were sent to the inhabitants of Boston, who were suffering In consequence of the port bill.

The same year, troops arrived in Boston, to enforce the impolitic and unjust acts of the British parliament. Forti- iicH.ions were erected on Boston neck, by order of genera! G;icfe ; and the ammunition and stores Ik Cambridge and Chanestown were secured.

in S^;pteniber, deputies, from most of the colonies, met in Congress, at Philadelpliia, who approved of the conduct of I he people of Massachusetts ; wrote a letter to general Gage ; pubiishc-d a declaration of rights ; formed an as- sociation not to import or use British goods ; sent a peti"- tlon to the king of Great-Britain ; an address to the in- 'habltants of that kingdom ; .another to the inhabitants of Canada ; and another to the inhabitants cf the colonies.

In the beginning of the next year, 1775, was passed the Fishery Bill, by which the northern colonies were forbid to fish on the banks of Newfoundland, for a certain time. This bore hard upon the commerce of these colonies, which was, in a great measure supported by the fishery. Soon after, another bill was passed, which restrained the trade

UNITED STATES. 103

of the middle and southern colonies to Great-Britain, Ire- land, and the West-Indies, except on certain conditions.

These repeated acts of oppression, on the part of Great- Britain, alienated the affections of America from her par- ent and sovereign, and produced a combined opposition to the whole system of taxation. Preparations begaa to be made to oppose by force the execution of these acts of par- hament. The militia of the country were trained to the use of arms — great encouragement was given for the man- ufacture of gun powder, and measures were taken to ob- tain all kinds of military stores.

In February, colonel Leslie was sent, with a detachment of British troops, from Boston, to take possession of some cannon, at Saiera. But the people had intelligence of the design — took up the draw bridge in that town, and pre- vented the troops from passing, until the cannon were se- cured ; so fhat the expedition failed.

In April, colonel Smith and major Pitcairn were sent with a body ot troops, to destroy the military stores which had been collected at Concoid, about twenty miles from Boston. At Lexington the militia were cpllected on a gieen, to opposq^the incursion of the British forces, and were fired upon by the troops, when eight men were killed upon the spot. Che militia were dispersed, and the troops proceeded to Concord where they destroyed a few stores. On their return, they weie incessantly harassed by the Americans, who, inHamed with just resentment, fired upi>n' them from houses and tences, and pursued them to Bi^sion.

At Lexington, was spilt the first blood in this memora- ble war; a war, which severed America irom the British empire. Here opened the fiist scene of the great drama, which, in its progress, exhibited the most illustrious char- acters and events, and closed with a revolution, equally glorious for the actois, and important in its consequences to the human race.

This battle roused all America. The nnilitia collected from all quarters ; and Boston was, in a few days, besieged by twenty thousand men. A stop wai put to all inter- course between the town and countiy, and the inhybitants were reduced to great want of provisions. Gentiai G.<ge promised to let the people depart, if they would dehver

lOi UNITED STATES.

up their arms. They complied ; but when tho general had obtained their arms, the perfidious man refused to let them go.

In the mean time, a small number of" men, under the- command of colonels Allen and Eastpn, without any pub- lic orders, surprised and took the British garrison at Ti- conderoga, without the loss of a man*

In June following, our troops attempted to fortify Bun- ker's hill, which lies in Charlestown, and but a mile from B'^ston. They had, during the night, thrown up a small breast work which sheltered them from the fire of the British cannon. The next morning, the British army was sent to drive them from the hill, and, landing under cover of their cannon, they set fire to Charlestown, which was consumed, and marched lo attack our tioops in the en- trencliments. A severe engagement ensued, in which tha British suffered a very great loss, both of officers and pri- vates. I'hey weie repulsed at first, and thrown into dis- order, but finally carried the foi tification. The Americans suffered a small loss, compared with the British ; but the death of ihe brave general Wan en, who fell in the action,, a martyr to the cause of his country, w^s severely felt, and universally lamented.

About this time, the continental congress appointed George Washington, Esq. a native ot Virginia, to the chief command of the American army. i'his gentleman had been a distinguished and successfui officer in the pre- ceding WAT, and seemed destined b} heaven to be the sav- iour ot his country. He accepted the appointment with a diffidence, which was a proof of his prudence and his greatnesb He refused any pay for eight years laborious and arduous service ; and, by